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This  book  may  be  kept  out 

TWO    WEEKS 

onl}',  and  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  TWO 
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FEB  1'- 193? 
.    DEC  17  1932 

NOV    2  1935 
frv      1939 

NOV 2  1948 


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The  Poultry  Book 


By 

HARRISON    WEIR,    F.R.H.S. 


American  Edition  Edited  by 

WILLIS    GRANT    JOHNSON 

Assisted    by 

GEORGE    O.    BROWN 

as   Associate    Editor 

and 

Many  American  Experts 

Complete    in    Eighteen    Parts 


NEW   YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE   &   COMPANY 
1903 


Copyright,   1903,  by 

DCUBLEDAY,    PaGE    &    COMPANY 


/ 


This    part     has    been    revised    and    partly    rewritten 
from  the  American  point  of  view  by  American  experts. 

"The    Varieties  to   Keep" 
George   O.  Brown,  Maryland 

"Mating    and  Breeding" 
I.  K.  Felch,  Massachusetts 


n9¥Df; 


I 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    partly    rewritten 
from  the  American  point  of  view  by  American  experts. 


CONTENTS    OF    PART   II 

"The  Commercial  Egg" 

"  Eggs  from  a  General  Point  of  View 

Miller  Purvis,  Illinois 


CONTENTS    OF   PART  III 

"Incubators  and   Chicken  Rearing" 
Thomas  F.   McGrew,  New  York 

*  "The  Feeding  of   Poultry" 
James  E.  Rice 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    partly    rewritten 
from  the  American  point  of  view  by  American  experts. 


CONTENTS    OF    PART   IV 

*  "The  Feeding  of    Poultry" 
James  E.  Rice,  New  York 

"  Finishing  Fowls  for  Market  " 
Miller  Purvis,  Illinois 

"Conditions  in  the   United   States" 
H.   E.   Moss,   New  York 

"The   Situation   in  Canada" 
Professor  A.  G.  Gilbert,  Ontario 

"Capons  and  Caponizing  " 
By  the  Editor 


*  Continued  from  Part  III 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    partly    rewritten 
from  the  American  point  of  view  by  American  experts. 


CONTENTS    OF   PART  V 

"Practical  Poultry  Houses" 
A.  F.  Hunter,  Massachusetts 

"The  Common  Diseases  of  Poultry" 
Dr.  Nathan  W.  Sanborne,  Massachusetts 

"  Principal  Insects  Infesting  Poultry  " 
A.  F.  Hunter 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    rewritten    from 
the    American    point  of    view    by  American    experts. 


CONTENTS    OF   PART  VI 

"The  Jungle-fowl" 

"Ancient  and  Modern  Game-cocks" 

"  An  American  Collection  of  Cock-spurs 
Dr.  H.  p.  Clarke,  Indiana 

*  "  The  Modern  Game-fowl" 


*  Continued  in  Part  VII 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    rewritten    from 
the    American    point  of    view    by  American    experts. 


CONTENTS    OF    PART   VII 

*  "  The  Modern  Game-fowl" 

"Oriental  Game-fowls" 
Dr.  H.   p.  Clarke,  Indiana 

General  Remarks  About   Game-fowls" 
Dr.  H.  p.  Clarke,  Indiana 

"The  Farm  or  Homestead  Fowl" 


Concluded  from  Part  VI 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    rewritten    from 
the    American    point  of   view    by  American    experts. 


CONTENTS    OF    PART   VIII 

Kent,   Sussex,   Surrey,  and  Dorking  Fowls 
"Some  Scotch  Fowls" 


This    book    has    been    revised    and    rewritten    from 
the    American    point  of   view    by  American   experts. 


CONTENTS    OF   PART  IX 

"The  Shanghai  or  Cochin  Fowl" 
Thomas    F.    McGrew,    New   York 

"Light  and  Dark  Brahmas  " 
Thomas  F.  McGrew,  New  York 


From  a  f  holograph  "  Commercial  Poultry 

WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK   COCK 


PREFACE. 


"  There  is  nothing  among  men  perpetual  nor  nothing  stable,  but  all  things  pass  and 
repass,  even  like  unto  the  flowing  and  ebbing  of  the  sea." — Sallust. 

[S  A  CHILD  I  was  ever  happy,  contented  and  amused  by 

the  companionship  of  animals  and  birds,  particularly  fowls. 

At  the  time  that  my  only  brother*  and    myself  were 

quite  "httle  things,  "  our  father  would  make  outHne  pencil 

drawings  for  us  to  copy.     These,  by  our  desire,  were  mostly 

"  cocks  and  hens."     No  stories  pleased  us  so  much  as  those 

of  the  wild  and  tame  animal  Hfe  of  the  woods,  hedgerows  and  the  farm, 

and  none  like  those  that  told  of  the  Kent  and  Sussex  homesteads,  with 

their  cattle,  bird  and  poultry  associations. 

Early  in  May,  1829,  when  scarcely  five  years  old,  I  traveled  with  my 
mother  by  coach  to  Tunbridge  Wehs,  and  thence  by  a  hired  conveyance 
along  the  Hastings  road  to  Pembury,  another  mile  ;  then  up  a  long,  narrow, 
wheel-rutted,  sanded  lane,  whose  high  and  low  side-banks  and  hedges  amid 
their  greenery  fairly  glowed  with  the  rich  and  rural  colorings  of  spring, 
through  a  five-barred  gateway,  past  a  pond  darkened  by  overhanging 
trees,  a  wider  and  more  oA  space  of  the  grass-fringed  trackway,  and  we 
were  a t^"  Fletchers',"  theBcient  family  home  of  a  near  relative:  an  old- 
wojrf  primitive,  Jialf-stone,  brick,  timber  and  weather-tile  built  house, 

^  John  Jenncr  \^r,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.E.S.,  etc. 

» ; . 


vu 


viii  The  Poultry  Book 

;      thatched  out -buildings, 

barn,    cart-house    and 

^  j,  v       >  piggeries,   with    a    sur- 

■^'Ip^      "^-r^  rounding    of    hop 

garden  s ,    arable, 

'^  '*-"  meadow     and     other 

"^^^  cultivated    land.      The 


^^ 


*'"^--*'  '  homestead     w^as    some 

centuries  old,  also  the 
>  ■    ;  out -buildings ;     fields 

^  ''  were   scattered   among 

woods,     joining     other 
AT  THE  OLD  FARM  woods  lu  almost  never- 

ending  variety  of  forms 
and  masses,  while  in  front  of  the  leaden  casement -windowed  house  was 
the  trim  and  gay  flower  garden,  defended  from  cattle  and  other  incur- 
sions by  the  whitest  of  wooden  paHngs.  A  thrush  sang  amid  the  trees  of 
the  blossomy  orchard  close  by,  and  a  chaffinch  gave  voice  from  a  lilac  bush. 
All  about  was  old,  even  the  very  fruit-trees,  and  yet  to  me — so  new.  To 
this  day  everything  I  saw  and  heard  is  as  fresh  and  as  bright  in  my  memory 
as  though  it  were  but  yesterday ;  the  house,  the  woods,  the  hedged-in  fields, 
the  birds,  the  wild  and  garden  flowers,  were  to  me  then,  as  now,  a  very 
wonderment  of  lovable  things  and  an  adorning  beauty  unadorned. 

The  day  after  our  arrival  I  was  missed,  and  by  much  searching  found 
in  the  cowyard  with  a  pencil  and  paper,  endeavoring  to  draw  "the  cocks 
and  hens.  "  For  many  years  these  drawings,  with  their  shght  resemblance 
to  fowls,  were  treasured  and  proudly  shown  by  my  mother.  Here  it  was 
that  I  first  saw  the  Kent  and  Sussex  white-shanked  five-toed  black-and- 
red  poultry,  though  kept  and  known  at  "Fletchers'"  and  some  adjacent 
farms  beyond  time  of  remembrance.  Years  afterward  I  learned  that  the 
w^iole  of  the  housekeeping  expenses  were  paid  out  of  the  profits  derived 
from  the  small  dairy  and — the  poultry.  From  this  time  my  love  of  animal 
life  so  increased  that  some  fowls  were  got  to  please  my  brother  and  myself. 
Three  Nankeen  Bantams,  and  then  some  partridge-colored  and  "booted,  " 
were  given  to  our  father  by  Sir  John  Sebright  for  "the  boys."  Then 
Aylesbury  Ducks,  pigeons,  rabbits,  dogs.  Guinea-pigs,  piebald  rats,  fawn- 
coloied,  Ijlack  and  white  mice,  and  a  tame  but  very  young  squirrel  were 


Preface 


IX 


purchased ;  and  thus  it  was  with  my  brother  and  myself  no  time  was  more 
enjoyable  than  that  spent  in  attending  to  the  wants  and  welfare  of  our 
various,  somewhat  incongruous  animal  and  bird  belongings ;  but  the  farm- 
yard, with  its  poultry,  was  ever  the  first  and  our  most  restful  pleasure. 
Growing  older  and  stronger,  we  wandered  wide  in  search  of  variety  in  this 
our  chief  dehght. 

Many  of  our  relatives  and  friends  living  in  Kent  and  Sussex  were 
farmers,  and  that  chiefly  of  their  own  land  or  of  large  holdings ;  and  it  may 
be  said  that  all,  as  a  rule,  kept  the  best  of  farm-stock,  and  the  poultry  was 
not  only  a  profitable  adjunct,  but  things  of  beauty  of  the  highest  excellence, 
whether  for  the  table  or  for  the  production  of  eggs. 

The  farmer  and  the  poultry  fancier  of  to-day  has  but  little  or  no  idea 
of  the  superior  and  long-tested  quahty  of  the  then  ancient  breeds  of  fowls 
nurtured  and  kept  about  our  southern  homesteads,  nor  how  much  they 
were  cared  for,  appreciated  and  valued. 

Both  the  cocks  and  hens  were  most  carefully  and  thoughtfully  selected, 
not  only  for  their  fineness  of  flesh,  thinness  of  skin,  their  form  and  size,  but 
also  for  their  uniformity  and  beauty  of  color ;  in  this  respect  districts  and 
farms  were  known  as  having  a  certain  specialty,  and  the  fowls  were  not, 
as  many  modern  writers  ignorantly  state,  unculled  or  unmatched.  In 
many  cases  the  housewives  were  as  proud,  if  not  more  so,  of  their  poultry 
as  any  cattle-breeder 
was  or  could  be  of  his 
cattle.  Often  would 
they  take  my  brother 
and  myself  at  the 
feeding-time  into  the 
poultry  yard,  and  there 
point  out  the  best,  and 
tell  us  why  they  were 
the  best,  and  what  Avere 
their  chief  points  of 
excellence,  or  their 
beauty  of  color  or 
markings;  and  further 
tell  us  how  the  same 
kind    and    breed     had  old  rent  and  sussex  five-toed  hen 


X  The  Poultry  Book 

been  kept  and  reared  on  the  land  for  many  generations ;  and  also 
when  some  were  killed,  and  plucked  for  the  table  for  culinary  purposes, 
we  were  shown  what  constituted  a  first-class  fowl  as  regarded  size, 
color  of  flesh,  fineness  of  the  fiber,  thinness,  whiteness  and  smoothness 
of  the  skin,  the  even  distribution  of  the  white  fat,  the  squareness 
of  the  body  —  for  none  were  then  in  favor  of  the  long  breast,  as  now 
advocated,  and  which  latter  is  a  mistake,  as  it  must  be  generally 
wanting  in  depth;  but  with  the  shape  then  bred  an  exceeding  plump- 
ness of  breast  was  obtained.  The  Partridge*  was  invariably  quoted  as 
"the  model  form"  of  what  a  fowl  should  be,  with  rather  more  leg  and 
thigh,  the  shanks  being  in  due  proportion;  and  they  one  and  all  were  most 
particular  that  the  shanks  (then  called  legs)  should  be  white,  and  fleshy 
scaled,  with  feet  five -toed  white — even  one  dark  nail  was  considered  a 
blemish,  and  rejected  as  breeding  stock.  We  were  shown  where  to  look 
for  the  hens'  eggs,  and  trained  in  the  feeding  and  rearing  of  chickens,  and 
to  note  the  times  of  feathering,  the  hen's  pratings,  cacklings  and  callings; 
the  cock's  Growings  were  talked  of  as  noticeable  as  varying  both  in  power 
and  tone,  and  as  indications  of  health  and  strength  that  were  not  to  be 
lost  sight  of  when  choosing  the  birds  of  the  year  for  mating  as  breeding  stock. 
Several  methods  of  fattening  the  chicken  were  shown  to  us,  and  how 
to  pluck  a  dead  fowl  properly,  while  the  carving  of  one  on  the  table  was  not 
neglected.  All  of  this  was  well  over  "sixty  years  since"  ;  and  thus  it  has 
been  that  almost  from  very  infancy  have  I  grown  into  the  knowledge  and 
love  of  our  "farm"  and  "fancy"  poultry,  and  the  which  to  me  has  been 
a  source  of  everlasting  pleasure  both  in  thought  and  reality.  Having  kept 
almost  every  variety,  not  only  have  I  studied  fowls  from  a  poulterer's 
view,  but  as  a  naturahst,  and,  lastly,  as  an  artist,  professionally  and  other- 
wise attending  poultry  shows,  from  that  of  1845  at  the  Zoological  Societies 
Gardens,  and  elsewhere  to  the  present  time,  often  acting  as  one  of  the 
judges,  and  have  been  also  an  exhibitor  for  nearly  fifty  years. j  During 
this  time  I  have  seen,  known  and  conversed  with  those  fanciers  of  the 
far-off  past  as  to  what  poultry  was,  and  those  breeders  of  the  day  as  to 
what  it  now  is,  and  thus  by  theirs  and  my  own  long  and  almost  unique 
experience  have  gathered,  I  hope,  a  true  and  certain  knowledge  of  the 
varieties  of  the  breeds,  both  old  and  new.     Such,  I  believe,  should  become 

*  Perhaps  the  Grouse  would  be  in  Scotland. 

t  Winning  first  prize  for  old  EngUsh  Game  cocks,  Crystal  Palace,  1S98. 


Preface 


XI 


historical ;  thus  it  is  that  I  have  endeavored  not  only  to  put  together  such 
facts  that  have  come  under  my  own  actual  observation,  but  also  those  made 
known  to  me  by  others  that  have  been  my  friends  and  associates  in  bygone 
times,  as  well  as  those  truthfully  recorded  by  authentic  writers  in  the 


..^ 


r 


SKETCH  AT  THE  OLD  FARM  SIXTY  YEARS  SINCE 


numerous  books,  mostly  in  my  possession,  my  idea  being  to  tell  of,  to 
portray  or  describe  our  different  breeds  of  fowls  as  to  what  they  were,  and 
now  what  they  are.  This  has  been  my  conceit  for  more  than  forty  years. 
Many  long  and  serious  illnesses,  and  work  in  other  directions,  has  hindered 
much,  and  made  progress  slow,  but  the  intention  has  gained  in  material, 
though  in  one  sense  it  has  unexpectedly  lost  in  another,  as  I  shall  presently 
show.  That  I  was  writing  and  preparing  an  illustrated  book  on  poultry 
had  long  been  known,  and  that  it  would  comprehend  the  past  and  present 
variations  of  the  different  breeds,  but  the  full  scope  of  its  contents  had  not 
been  defined  to  others,  until  in  a  friendly  conversation  between  myself 
and  the  editor  of  Poultry  (the  late  Mr.  Broomhead),  May,  1891,  in  which 
I  gave  him  the  general  outhne  of  what  I  was  and  had  been  doing,  upon 
which  he  published  the  following  in  Poultry,  May  22,  1891 : 


Xll 


The  Poultry  Book 


' '  Mr.  Harrison  Weir  has  for  a  long  time  been  engaged  in  writing  a  poultry 
book,  although  illness  has  again  somewhat  hindered  him.  The  work, 
which  will  be  altogether  different  from  the  general  run  of  poultry  books,  is  a 
resume  of  more  than  fifty  years'  experience,  and  will  show^  the  variations  of 
many  of  the  breeds  of  fowls  for  a  number  of  years  in  consequence  of  poultry 
shows,  which,  as  is  generally  well  known,  Mr.  Harrison  Weir  has  contended 
for  many  years  past  has  been  the  ruin  of  the  commercial  table  fowls. 
For  years  past  ]\Ir.  Weir  has  been  making  very  carefully  delineated  draw- 
ings, which  will  accompany  his  descriptions  of  the  birds.  Game-fowls  and 
Dorkings  will  occupy  a  prominent  position  in  the  work,  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  and  interesting  information  having  been  got  together  respecting 
these  breeds." 

This  information  having  been  freely  given,  I,  and  also  many  others, 
were  somewhat  indignantly  surprised  to  find  another  book  published  in 
1892  of  nearly  the  same  construction,  and  not  only  that,  but  using  on  the 
title-page  almost  the  precise  words  that  the  editor  of  Poultry  had 
written  in  May,  1891,  regarding  my  book  from  the  information  that  I 
gave  him. 

I  only  quote  the  above  fact  to  clear  myself  from  any  imputation  of 
plagiarism  at  least  on  my  part,  and  for  no  other  reason.  The  above  carries 
its  own  comment,  therefore  any  from  me  is  needless. 

Upon  this,  I  thought  it  best  to  aVjandon  my  book,  though  the  work  of 
many  years'  research,  much  thought  and  a  lifelong  experience;   so  for  the 


PARTRIDGES 


time  at  least  it  was  abandoned,  and  only  resumed  at  the  earnest  entreaty 
of  some  dear  friends,  and  though  from  ill-health  and  various  other  causes 
the  work  has  been  slow,  and  at  times  almost  tedious,  it  is  at  last  completed, 
and  I  most  sincerely  trust  and  hope  that  as  it  has  been  a  labor  of  love. 


Preface 


Xlll 


OLD   STYLE    OF    KENT    AND    SUSSEX    FOWl 


with  all  its  faults  and  shortcomings  it  may  prove  to  be  both  useful 
and  interesting;  also,  being  partly  historical  and  biographical,  it  may  be 
found  instructive. 

The  antiquarian  portion  is  selected  from  a  mass  of  notes  taken  from 
old  books,  Middle  Age  inventories,  records,  and  from  various  other  sources, 
and  which  I  trust  will  be  found  acceptable,  and  at  one  and  the  same  time 
convey  to  the  fanciers,  poultry  keepers  and  poultry  writers  of  to-day  that, 
without  doubt,  and  whatever  may  have  been  said  to  the  contrary,  for  many 
centuries  at  least  our  poultry  was  not  merely  one  of  the  neglected  append- 
ages of  the  villa  and  farm,  but  was  chosen  and  bred  with  much  care,  atten- 


XIV 


The  Poultry  Book 


tion  and  discretion,  and  that  not  only  as  a  source  of  profit,  but  also  for 
pleasure  and  even  sport ;  and  that  before  any  poultry  shows  existed  there 
were  fanciers,  and  the  table  fowls  of  Kent  were  noted  in  history,  and  these, 
with  those  of  Sussex  and  Surrey,  were  truthfully  pronounced  by  competent 
judges  to  be  as  "table  fowls,  the  very  finest  and  best  in  the  world.  " 

I  have  only  to  add  that  the  birds  dehneated  are  portraits  and  not  ideals, 
and  that  latterly,  to  insure  as  much  accuracy  as  possible,  photographs  have 
been  used  in  every  instance  where  procurable.  For  many  of  these  I  am 
lastingly  indebted  to  several  of  our  principal  poultry  breeders  and  fanciers, 
and  their  great  kindness  in  having  their  birds  photographed  especially  for 
my  use,  and  for  which  and  other  gentle  courtesies  I  tender  my  most  hearty 
and  sincere  thanks. 

HARRISON   WEIR. 

August  9,  1902. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS 


OWLS  {Galliis  domesticiis,  Buff.) ;  Guinea- 
fowls  {Numida  meleagris,  Lin.) ;  Turkeys 
(Meleagris  gallopavo,  Lin.);  Geese  (Anser 
anser,  Lin.);  Ducks  {Anas  boschas,  or  domestica, 
Lin.).  These  in  their  varieties  represent  the  chief 
if  not  the  whole  of  our  useful  domestic  birds,  and 
it  is  a  curious  fact  that  they  originate  in  the  four 
quarters  of  the  world,  the  first  coming  from  Asia, 
the  second  from  Africa,  the  third  from  America, 
while  the  last  two  are  European. 

And  it  is  no  less  remarkable  how  well  each 
and  all,  by  their  many  naturally  valuable  properties 
and  habits,  are  so  thoroughly  adapted  for  domestica- 
tion, no  other  famiHes  of  birds,  w4th  the  exception  of 
the  pigeon,  lending  themselves  as  readily  to  an 
almost  if  not  an  entire  domesticity.  True  it  is 
that  the  Turkey  with  us  has  comparatively  not 
long  been   known    as    such,    nor   even   now   is    it 

entirely  rescued  from  its  wild  state ;  nor  is  the  Guinea-fowl  at  present 

so  perfectly  under  the  control  of  man  as  the  Goose,  the  Duck,  or  more 

especially  the  Fowl.     Centuries  on  centuries  has  the  last  been  the  useful 

associate   of  the  country  villa,  the  cottage, 

the  homestead,   or  the  profitable  appendage 

of  the  farm.     At  all  hands  it  has  merited  and 

received  peculiar  attention.     History  tells  of 

it ;  poets  have  written  in  its  praise ;  painters 

have  pictured  it;    and   on  the  very   Hps    of 

our   children  its  name  is  a  household  word. 

The  cock,  as   a  bird    of    omen,  was   held  in 

reverence,  and  as  such  was  cherished  in  the 

far-away  dim  ages  of  the  past.     In  ancient 

as   well    as  in  modern  times  it  was  either  a 


HEAD    OF    WHITE 

PLYMOUTH    ROCK   COCK 

Owned  by  U.  R.  Fishel,  Indiana. 


AT   COCK    CROW 


2  The  Poultry  Book 

bird  of  sacrifice,  worshiped  for  its  valor,  or  dedicated  to  both  gods  and 
goddesses.  It  was  used  and  abused  for  sport,  and  morals  were  drawn 
from  its  high  and  unconquerable  courage.  Though  the  cock  was  the 
emblem  of  strife,  it  was  also  that  of  nobleness,  coupled  with  gentleness, 
dignity  and  honor.  So  regular  were  its  habits  that  by  its  crowings  the 
times  of  the  night  season  were  apportioned,  and  it  was  ever  the  wakeful 
harbinger  of  morn. . 

From  the  earliest  ages  its  flesh  and  bones  have  been  in  many  wa^'s 
considered  prime  factors  in  the  art  of  healing,  and  its  feathers  regarded  as 
decorative,  emblematical  or  useful. 

Collectively  with  the  hen  its  value  increases.  The  eggs  of  the  latter, 
though  produced  in  abundant  quantity,  are  still  in  an  almost  incredible 
demand,  not  only  as  an  aliment,  but  as  an  absolute  necessity  in  manu- 
facturing, beautifying,  finishing  or  purifying  innumerable  articles,  fabrics 
and  Hquids  that  more  or  less  form  a  part  of  our  daily  w^ants  or  supposed 
requirements.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  appears  to  be  scarcely  any  limit 
to  the  various  purposes  to  which  hens'  eggs  may  be  put,  for  the  reason  that 
as  yet  no  real  substitute  for  the  albumen  which  they  contain  has  been 
discovered;  they  remain  the  one  and  only  substance  necessary  for  the 
production  of  much  in  commerce,  through  the  progress  of  civilization, 
luxury  and  invention. 

The  fact  must  not,  however,  be  overlooked,  that  for  the  major  part  of 
the  eggs  thus  used  we  are  dependent  on  foreign  sources.  Our  own  indus- 
tries and  traffic  have  created  also  a  profitable  industry  for  other  countries, 
even  those  at  considerable  distance  from  our  own,  which  by  a  careful 
organization  are  enabled,  after  paying  all  charges  of  cost  and  transit,  to 
come  in  competition  on  our  markets,  and  sell  at  a  lower  price  than  that  of 
the  home  produce. 

Now,  how  is  this  done?  Why  is  Russia  able  to  compete  with  us  on 
our  markets  in  our  own  country  successfully  ?  I  can  only  give  two  reasons : 
one  is  "barter,"  and  the  other  "organization."  In  other  words,  it  is  a 
matter  of  exchange  of  goods  more  than  money ;  so  that  the  profit  is 
possibly,  at  least  partially,  made  on  the  export  as  well  as  the  import. 

As  food  the  egg  is  unsurpassed,  while  the  flesh  of  the  fowl  commands 
and  receives  an  almost  universal  recognition  of  a  dehcate,  dehcious  superi- 
ority all  its  own.  Both  for  the  young,  the  middle-aged,  the  weak,  the 
strong,  the  invalid  and  the  aged  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its 


Introductory    Remarks 


Leg  of  Surrey  or  Sussex  Fowl  (Cockerel) 
Pure  white  and  wliite  Toe-nails  ;    Fore  Toe  same  length  as  Shank 
side  Toe  as  long  as  the  Middle  Toe.  to  end  joint ;  Hind  Toe  just  ha 
the  length  of  Side  Toe  ;  Out  Toe  4,  Middle  3,  Inner,  2  joints 


Front  View  of  Tawny  Ol  I  Kent  Hen's  Leg. 
(Observe  the  breadth  ol  Toe-nail) 


GROUP    OF    LEGS     (SH.\XKS)     SHOWING    THE    VARIETY    OF    FORM    I.\    DIFFEREXT    BREEDS 


4  The  Poultry  Book 

dietetic,   nutritious  and  appetizing  qualities,  and  that  it  has  ever  Vjeen 
appreciated  is  amply  demonstrated  by  many  of  the  earliest  records. 

Though  fowls  as  gallinaceous  birds  perch  and  even  roost  on  trees,  yet 
in  their  characteristic  habits  they  are  birds  of  the  ground;  and  it  is  there 
they  search  for  food,  which  especially  consists  of  grains,  seeds,  roots, 
berries,  the  tender  tops  and  leaves  of  shrubs  and  vegetables,  not  excluding 
insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  and  even  small  mice.  Their  limbs  are 
strong  and  well  knit,  and  capable  of  much  sustained  action,  the  muscles 
being  well  and  fully  developed.  The  legs  and  thighs  are  of  meditmi  length, 
and  their  shanks  are  covered  with  protective  scales,  sometimes  concealed 
by  feathers,  while  for  defense  they  are  occasionally  armed  in  both  sexes 
with  sharp  and  often  lengthy  spurs.  The  three  front  or  anterior  toes  are 
by  their  strength  and  formation  well  adapted  for  raking,  scraping  or 
scratching,  being  furnished  with  strong  claws  or  toe-nails  of  peculiar  form, 
with  cutting  edges,  while  the  arched  concave  and  convex  of  bone  in  the 
inner  centre  prevents  all  chance  of  bending ;  the  hinder  toes  (and  there  are 
two  or  three  more  in  some  cases)  scarcely  more  than  touch  the  ground, 
and  are  serviceable  for  perching,  though  less  so  in  walking. 

They  never  wash,  as  many  other  birds  do,  but  cleanse  themselves  of 
insect  life  by  shuffling  in  and  throwing  dust  or  soil  amongst  their  feathers. 
The  beak  is  stout,  strong,  somewhat  hooked  at  the  extremity,  and  is  horn- 
covered.  The  body  is  very  plump,  the  breast  being  full  and  rounded,  with 
a  deep  keel  to  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  the  more  so  in  those  so  formed 
as  to  be  able  to  use  their  wings  freely  and  quickly  in  flight,  while  consider- 
ably less  so  in  those  that  are  large  in  the  thighs  and  legs  and  long  in  shanks, 
which  are  more  adapted  for  running  and  walking,  the  wings  in  these  being 
short  and  concave.  The  head  is  generally  surmounted  by  naked  vascular 
flesh,  or  what  is  usually  called  a  comb  or  crest,  which  is  often  deeply 
serrated,  and  in  some  instances  very  large,  as  are  the  pendulous  wattles ; 
in  others  these  are  almost  wanting,  their  place  being  supplied  by  feathers 
either  as  beard,  muffler  or  cops.  In  come  cases  the  comb  and  beard  are 
found;  in  others,  large  and  full  topknots  of  feathers  and  long  pendulous 
wattles.  With  some  the  cheeks  or  faces  are  naked,  while  with  others  they 
are  entirely  covered. 

They  seldom  if  ever  build  any  nest,  though  there  are  instances  of  such 
recorded.  I  had  an  old  English  spurred  Game  hen  that  actually  carried 
straws,  weeds,  etc.,  in  her  beak  for  that  purpose  into  a  corner  som.e  little 


Introductory    Remarks  5 

height  from  the  ground.  According  to  the  breed,  they  are  more  or  less 
abundant  layers  of  pure  white,  tinted  brown  or  brown-and-spotted  eggs. 
At  what  time  the  domestic  fowl  was  first  introduced  into  England  is 
unknown,  but  there  is  a  tradition  in  Cornwall  that  it  was  originally  brought 
to  that  part  of  our  coast  by  the  Phenicians  when  they  came  to  traffic  for 


CROSS-BRED    PU 

Age.  a14  months  ;    Leg, 


.ET    BETWEEN    DORKING    HEN    AND    CORNISH    INDIAN    COCK 


the  scales ;    Weight  .if  fu 


Inside  fat,  2 


tin  and  copper  with  the  natives,  previous  to  the  Roman  invasion ;  and  to 
this  day,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  called  the  Persian  bird,  but 
why  this  latter  does  not  appear;  and  further,  it  is  especially  noted  by 
Caesar  ("  De  Bello")  that  the  Cock,  the  Goose  and  the  Hare  were  among, 
if  not  the  whole  of,  the  domestic  animals  of  the  ancient  Britons,  and  kept 
by  them  for  pleasure  only  before  his  invasion  of  the  country,  but  that  soon 
after  their  scruples  in  this  direction  disappeared. 

However  that  may  be,  it  is  certain  the  Romans  brought  with  them  the 
"fighting  Cock, "  both  to  the  south  and  the  west  of  England;  clear  proof 
of  which  are  the  bones,  nay,  the  very  metal  spurs  used  in  their  contests. 


The  Poultry  Book 


that  have  been 
found  both  in 
Surrey  and 
Cornwall.  One 
metal  spur  was 
dug  up  in  South- 
wark,  and  a  pair 
in  an  old  Roman 
wall  in  the  latter 
county,  besides 
others  that  un- 
fortunately were 
not  preserved  or 
sufficiently 
noted. 

From  the 
time  of  the 
Romans,  at 
least,  until  the 
present,  fowls  in 
lesser  or  greater 
numbers  have 
been  imported 
from  Holland, 
France,  Spain,  Germany  and  Italy,  and  latterly  more  especially  from  India, 
China  and  Japan,  and  now  from  America,  in  variety  and  crossings  almost 
bewildering.  Yet  with  all  these  one  curious  fact  remains,  and  that  is,  that 
the  old  English  well-known  breeds  which  have  been  attributed  to  the  Roman 
introduction — the  five-toed  Kent,  Sussex  and  Surrey  fowls  and  the 
perfectly  formed,  valorous  and  beautiful  "fighting  Cocks,"  have  up  to 
within  the  last  few  3^ears,  if  not  even  now,  maintained  their  high  character 
and  superiority  in  England  as  the  "best  all-round"  fowls  ever  known, 
and  for  table  are  still  unequaled,  and  as  such  were  universally  admitted 
so  to  be  before  the  institution  of  poultry  shows,  that  have  with  them  even 
now  in  the  exhibits  the  blighting  influences  of  Asiatic  crossings. 

Fifty  years  ago  it  was  these  breeds  pure  and  simple,  from  the  southern 
farmyards  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  that  the  principal  and  justly  praised  prize 


G<J.^'^ 


OLD    KENT    FOWL 


Introductory   Remarks  7 

winners  were  chiefly  taken,  and  where  they  were  both  in  numbers  and  in 
such  state  of  perfection  as  table  fowls  as  commanded  and  retained  the 
admiration  of  all  who  saw  them.  On  the  advent  of  the  Shanghai,  the 
Cochin,  the  Brahma,  and  some  other  Asiatic  breeds,  deterioration  began, 
and  there  arose  a  craze  for  size;  and  as  a  consequence  these  coarse  breeds 
were  crossed  and  intercrossed  with  our  old  EngHsh ;  the  result  being  our 
pure  breeds — the  outcome  of  centuries  of  cultured  selection  and  attention, 
the  perfected  strains  "of  our  forefathers"  in  past  ages— were  mongrelized, 
in  some  cases  almost  past  recognition,  and  to-day  scarcely  a  Kent,  Sussex 
or  Surrey  farmyard  holds  a  fowl  of  any  pure  breed.  This  is  not  merely 
assertion,  but  absolute  fact ;  it  is  not  hearsay,  but  what  I  have  myself  seen 
sixty  years  ago  and  by  inspection  lately. 

And  still  the  pernicious  practice  of  mongrehzing  goes  on,  the  stream  of 
ignorance  or  perversity  grows  wider  and  more  overwhelming,  reason  is 
scoffed  at,  and  conceit  with  party  and  individual  gain  rules  for  awhile,  and 
there  is  but  little  hope  of  recovery  from  this  bad  state — this  crossing  so 
ruining  to  everything;  for  what  with  amateur  lecturers,  dealers  and 
faddists,  who  have  a  craze  for  what  they  term  "fresh  blood,  "  the  outlook 
is  gloomy  indeed.  The  farmer  has  but  to  go  among  the  southern  farm- 
yards, where  formerly  the  poultry  kept  was  of  the  best  of  marketable  fowls, 
and  note  the  wide  and  depreciated  difference. 

It  must  be  clear  to  every  observant  mind  that  as  the  craze  for  mon- 
grehzing is  rampant  and  still  gains  credit  with  the  credulous,  that  were 
it  not  for  our  poultry  shows,  our  tried,  serviceable,  in  all  ways  valuable 
pure  breeds  would  very  soon  cease  to  exist — these  old  fowls  of  ours,  the 
work  of  ages,  the  perfection  of  table  fowls,  the  abundant  layers  of  good 
white  eggs,  the  beautiful,  the  grand,  the  stately,  well-formed,  deHcate- 
fleshed,  easily  bred  and  easily  fatted,  unsurpassed,  long  cherished,  for  all 
their  profitable  uses.  I  say,  emphatically,  were  it  not  for  the  poultry 
shows,  these,  and  the  Hke  of  these,  would  be  things  of  the  past,  and  to  the 
lasting  disgrace  of  the  poultryman  of  to-day  they  would  become  extinct. 
Happily,  so  far  there  are  some  who  know  the  double  value  of  purity  of 
breed,  and  it  is  to  these  and  only  these  that  the  country  can  look  for  help 
to  regain  what  is  already  comparatively  lost— the  old  and  enviable  position 
of  having  the  best  and  most  perfect  table  fowls  in  the  world. 

As  regards  other  poultry,  of  the  Guinea-fowl  it  may  be  said  that  in 
flesh  it  almost,  if  not  quite,  equals  the  very  best  of  fowls,  and  as  such 


8  The  Poultry  Book 

commands  a  good  and  ready  marketable  value,  while  at  certain  times  of 
the  year  it  is  an  abundant  layer  of  delicately  tinted  palatable  eggs.  But 
its  domestication  is  not  even  yet,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  ever  will  be, 
as  perfect  as  that  of  the  fowl,  it  being  wild  and  wandering  in  habit,  and 
more  than  somewhat  difficult  to  manage  with  any  degree  of  certainty  and 
success. 

The  Turkey  is  indeed  a  noble  bird,  and  ornamentally  grand  both  in 
habit  and  carriage — the  stately  walk,  the  bold,  imposing,  haughty  mien, 
the  general  aspect — the  shivering  quivering  of  its  many-colored  sun- 
ghnting  feathers  into  attractive  array.  While  majestically  it  poses, 
turns  and  struts  simply  on  its  pride  of  beauty,  it  is  a  bird  for  admiration, 
noticeable,  and  something  more  than  pleasing.  In  all  ways  the  Turkey 
was  a  great  gain  and  a  lasting  one.  The  flesh  is  delicious,  white,  dehcate, 
juicy,  and  fine  in  grain;  a  well-fatted  turkey  poult  is  indeed  a  luxur3\ 
But  the  Turkey  will  not  thrive  on  certain  soils,  and  only  in  favored  locali- 
ties. The  constant  attention  that  the  young  chicks  require  until  they 
feather  is  urged  against  it,  but  after  the  troublous  time  is  past,  and 
properly  cared  for,  the  little  ones  almost  rear  themselves.  This  being  so, 
the  English  Turkey  may  be  grown  profitably,  having,  as  it  has,  a  superi- 
ority in  flesh  over  the  French,  Belgian,  Italian,  Spanish  and  Hunga'^-'an, 
by  reason  of  its  richness  and  flavor ;  and  although  large  quantities  are  im- 
ported, the  former  generally  maintains  the  best  value  in  the  market,  as 
well  as  the  most  ready  sale. 

Of  the  Goose  at  least  two  varieties  are  with  us  historical :  the  White  and 
the  Gray.  These  are  well  supplemented  by  the  African,  the  Canadian,  the 
Chinese  and  the  Sebastopol,  the  last  being  the  most  ornamental.  All  are 
hardy,  easily  reared,  and  in  every  way  profitable  both  to  farmer  and 
poultryman,  and  it  is  to  a  degree  surprising  that  they  are  not  kept  in  far 
greater  numbers  than  they  are,  more  especially  about  our  commons  and 
other  waste  lands.  To  this  the  almost  general  answer  is,  that  it  does  not 
pay  as  it  might  on  account  of  the  foxes,  the  wearisome  nightly  housing  of 
the  flocks,  where  practicable,  not  being  sufficient,  for  even  with  this 
precaution  many  are  carried  ofl"  in  the  broad  day,  and  such  casualties  are 
so  numerous  that  in  far  too  many  places  well  adapted  for  the  feeding  and 
maintaining  large  flocks  of  geese  the  attempt  to  keep  them  has  for  this 
reason  been  entirely  abandoned.  And  so  it  is  with  other  varieties  of  our 
poultry ;  a  greater  number  both  of  fowls  and  ducks  would  be  raised  were  it 


Introductory  Remarks  9 

not  for  the  same  cause,  one  man  telling  me  that  in  two  years  he  lost  nearly 
one  hundred  pounds  in  value  of  poultry,  and  dare  not  ask  for  such  com- 
pensation as,  being  high-class  breeds,  they  were  worth.  Another  fancier 
writes  that  he  has  lost  just  the  last  few  of  his  Game-fowl  hens  by  foxes. 
These  can  never  be  replaced,  the  strain  with  sixty  years'  pedigree  being 
now  practically  extinct.  A  friend  of  mine  lost  fourteen  of  his  best  White 
Aylesbury  Ducks  in  one  night ;  on  mentioning  the  fact  to  the  master  of 
the  foxhounds,  the  owner  was  told  he  ought  to  have  taken  more  care  of 
them  and  got  them  in. 

This  is  by  no  means  an  isolated  case,  and  the  constant  worry,  trouble 
and  anxiety  of  collecting  the  stock  at  night  in  all  weathers  is  by  "The 
Hunt "  never  thought  of  nor  cared  for,  and,  unless  in  the  case  of  actual  loss, 
much  less  paid  for,  and  that  not  always  even  in  the  latter  case.  Thus  so 
it  is  that  far  fewer  poultry  is  kept  than  might  or  could  be,  both  for  amuse- 
ment and  profit,  while  the  nation  has  to  largely  import  fowls,  turkeys, 
geese,  ducks,  and  eggs,  by  reason  of  this  survival  in  civilized  times  of  the 


J'hacograph  6y  Thos.  Heap,  Soiceyhy 
GROUP    OF    PRIZE    GEESE.      (The  propi^rty  of  F.  G.  S.  Rawson,  Esq.,  Thorpe,  Yorkshire.) 


10  The  Poultry  Book 

"  sport "  of  hunting  animals,  kept  at  the  expense,  and  with  perpetual  worry 
and  anxiety,  of  a  certain  inoffensive  class  of  the  industrial  community. 

I  cannot  forbear  giving  the  above  facts,  for  the  reason  that  not  only 
have  I  been  a  sufferer  on  one  occasion,  but  that  the  complaints  of  loss  from 
time  to  time  have  been  so  numerous  that  the  wonderment  is  that  the 
people,  especially  the  poorer  classes,  have  borne  the  scourge  and  suft'ered 
meekly  and  patiently  the  gross  injustice  so  long. 

As  well  as  Geese,  Ducks  may  be  kept  to  great  advantage,  the  "White 
Aylesbury  being  the  best  for  the  market,  the  Rouen  following  close,  while 
the  somewhat  newcomer,  the  Pekin,  gains  in  the  estimation  of  the 
"duckers"  as  it  is  improved  in  shape;  but  even  yet  there  is  a  large  appre- 
ciable difference  in  favor  of  the  Aylesbury,  which  is  also,  if  not  quite,  as 
prolific  a  layer,  while  the  Pekin  is  the  prime  favorite  in  America,  where 
some  "duckers"  raise  as  many  as  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  ducklings  in  a 
season,  and  this  exclusive  of  a  considerable  number  of  eggs,  that  are  turned 
to  profitable  account  in  various  ways. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  dead  (dressed)  poultry  shows 
will  prove  of  much  service  in  educating  the  public  to  the  knowledge  of 
what  is  really  a  good  Turkey,  Goose,  Fowl,  or  Duck,  and  that  of  the  highest 
quality.  At  present  the}^  are  simply  ignorant  so  far,  and  buy  a  fowl  because 
it  is  one,  and  not  so  much  on  account  of  its  superiority  and  excellence. 
Until  this  training  has  taken  eft'ect,  the  big-boned,  coarse-fleshed,  thick- 
skinned  monstrosities  that  now  do  duty  for  "delicacies"  will  have  a 
marketable  value,  and  the  cross-breeds  and  mongrels,  advocated  by 
interested  poulterers  and  poultry  dealers,  will  keep  "in  evidence."  The 
horse-breeder,  the  cattle-breeder,  the  sheep-breeder,  the  swine-breeder,  the 
dog-breeder,  one  and  all  know  the  enormous  value  of  purity  of  breed,  and 
this  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  high  prices  realized  for  such  stock ;  but 
then  with  these  there  are  no  faddist  lecturers,  busybodies  and  interested 
poultry  dealers,  the  last  who  realize  most  with  mongrel  stock  cheaply 
raised  and  dearly  sold.  These,  and  such  as  these,  have  mainly  contributed 
toward  the  gradual  extinction  that  is  going  on  of  the  best,  the  handsomest 
and  the  purest  races  of  our  poultry.  Of  this  I  am  quite  certain,  and 
this  from  a  long  life's  experience,  that  whatever  animals  or  birds  are 
kept,  the  best,  the  handsomest  and  the  purest  breed  are  not  only  the 
cheapest,  but  in  the  end  will  be  found  the  most  gratifying  as  stock,  and 
far  the  most  enjoyable  and  profitable  in  every  way. 


y?^ 


^ 


^\  I 


HEN    AND   THREE    CHICKS 


THE    BEGINNING 


"  All  difficulties  are  but  easy  when  they  are  known." — ^^leasure  jor  Measure. 


OST  people  have  the  idea  that  for  poultry  keeping,  whether 
for  pleasure  or  profit,  very  little,  if  anything,  is  required  be- 
yond common  sense,  inclination  and  a  sufficient  amount  of 
capital,  as  though  there  was  nothing  to  learn,  no  knowledge 
or  experience  necessary,  but  simpty  to  take  or  buy  some 
ground,  build  sheds,  make  runs,  and  stock  them  with  fowls, 
turkeys,  geese  and  ducks,  and — "the  thing  is  done."  But  unfortunately 
it  is  not ;  excepting  so  far,  that  a  certain  amount  of  money  has  been  spent 
in  the  hiring  or  buying  of  the  land  and  "the  poultry,"  a  doubtful  responsi- 
bility has  been  incurred,  while  the  profit  is  by  no  means  so  apparent ;  and 
then  the  tyro  begins  to  realize,  if  he  or  she  has  not  done  so  before, 
that  the  keeping  of  poultry,  hke  any  other  business,  must  have  an 
especial  training,  and  also  an  aptitude  for  the  occupation,  which  may 
be  safely  said  is  not  universal.  This  latter  attribute  is  one  that  can 
never  be  acquired,  and  therefore  it  is  possibly  one  of  the  reasons,  if 
not  the  chief,  of  the  many  failures  of  attempted  "poultry  farming," 
even  as  an  important  adjunct  to  the  land  industry  of  the  making  of 
money  in  other  ways. 

These  facts  are  already  so  well  known,  and  have  been  so  often  and  so 


12  The  Poultry  Book 

thoroughly  discussed,  that  it  seems  almost  superfluous  to  mention  them 
again  ;  and  it  is  only  for  the  reason  that  they  are  so  continually  disregarded, 
put  aside,  or  disbelieved,  that  it  is  needful,  and  more  than  needful,  indeed, 
it  is  imperative  once  more  to  call  attention  to  the  uselessness  of,  without 
some  practical  insight  into  the  business,  trying  to  do  that  for  which  thev 
are  thus  unfitted  regardless  of,  and  utterly  neglecting,  the  ever-increasing 
warning  daily  given  by  other  absolute  failures. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  keeping  of  poultry  is  decided  upon,  either  for 
pleasure  or  profit,  or  both,  the  very  best  plan  is  to  begin  in  a  small  w^ay  with 
a  few  fowls,  as  all  knowledge  is  gained  by  observation,  reflection  and 
experience ;  then  to  add  to  the  stock,  if  it  is  found  to  be  a  paying  invest- 
ment as  well  as  a  source  of  pleasure.  Another  way  is  that,  but  it  cannot 
be  so  strongly  recommended,  of  joining  one  already  versed  in  the  many 
methods,  market  values  and  other  requirements.  Various  things  besides 
inclination  and  capital  have  to  be  considered;  and  not  any,  unless  they 
have  tried  it,  can  possibly  conceive  how  many  difficulties  there  are,  expected 
and  otherwise,  and  how  much  knowledge  there  is  to  acquire  and  the 
numberless  things  to  learn  before  they  or  any  can  hope  to  accomplish  even 
a  moderate  success.  While,  indeed,  with  some  few  all  this  is  as  though 
they  were  "to  the  manner  born,"  and  with  such  failure  seems  almost 
impossible,  yet,  even  with  such  "gifts,"  there  are  other  things  necessary 
to  command  success  besides  the  mere  breeding  and  rearing  of  the  poultry, 
and  not  the  least  of  these  are  good,  sound,  steady  business  habits,  an  acute 
faculty  for  buying  and  selling,  and  lastly,  a  steady  sale  and  market  for 
the  produce. 

Before  commencing,  a  locality  must  be  chosen,  and  the  soil  should  be 
dry,  loamy,  and  slightly  sandy,  yet  very  fertile.  The  sand  in  w^et  weather 
prevents  the  mud  adhering  to  the  feet  and  feathers  of  the  birds.  The  soil 
should  naturally  be  well  drained  by  a  gravel  or  stony  subsoil,  and,  if 
possible,  have  a  clear  stream  intersecting,  and  toward  which  the  ground 
should  slope  with  a  southern  aspect.  If  sheltered  by  trees  or  evergreen 
enclosures  from  cold,  raw  winds,  it  is  then  indeed  favorable;  and  where 
such  can  be  secured,  combined  with  a  proper  knowledge  of  poultry  life, 
almost  any  variety  of  fowls  may  be  kept  with  advantage.  But  if  the  land 
is  heavy,  clayey,  or  retentive  of  moisture,  then  it  must  be  artificially 
drained,  and  also  must  be  stocked  with  a  more  hardy  variety  of  breed.  In 
all  cases  where  the  ground  to  be  occupied  is  bare  it  is  advisable  to  plant 


WHITE    AYLESbURY   DUcKS 


I        'III  II      AYLESBURY    DUCK 
rt)  uf  Mr.  J. .1:11  i,illies,  Chermeside,  Berwickshir 


I 


The  Beginning  15 

good  varieties  of  fruit-trees,  and  of  these  the  clierry  is  the  most  rapid- 
growing.  Plums  are  especially  suitable,  as  it  is  claimed  the  poultry 
keep  down  the  ravages  of  the  curculio.  Where  the  yards  are  exten- 
sive, fruit-trees  as  variety  should  be  the  rule.  This  is  the  time- 
honored  custom  and  a  good  one,  the  orchards  being  for  most  reasons 
the  favored  spot.  Plant  trees  of  vigorous  growth — the  kinds  that 
are  favorites  in  market.  The  trees  will  in  time  provide  the  semishade 
so  desirable. 

As  to  the  houses,  coops  and  rearers,  they  should  be  cheap  and  ser\^- 
iceable,  fairly  roomy,  window-lighted,  and  well  ventilated,  but  without  a 
draught.  Each  should  have  perches,  nest -boxes  and  dusting  places,  with 
scratching-sheds  where  no  trees  are  available.  The  shape,  height,  width 
and  size  of  the  houses  should  be  such  as  are  suitable  to  the  breeds  kept. 
For  the  heavy  Asiatic  breeds  a  different  kind  of  house  must  be  provided,  for 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  and  the  Games  or  Hamburgs  will 
require  still  smaller  accommodations.  The  size  of  the  runs  must  be  deter- 
mined according  to  space  at  command  and  the  variety  of  breed  for  which 
they  are  intended.  The  run's  fencing  must  be  boarded,  or  have  very  fine 
mesh  of  strong  wire,  from  the  ground  upward  at  least  three  feet  high,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  cocks  from  fighting.  This  is  to  be  surmounted  by  two-inch 
mesh  wire  netting,  at  least  six  feet  high  with  the  flying  breeds,  and  two  or 
three  feet  with  the  Asiatics. 

In  most  respects  glazed  earthenware  or  iron  troughs  for  water  are  to  be 
preferred  to  close  fountains,  for  the  reason  that  the  latter  are  too  often 
neglected,  and  not  cleansed  and  refilled  every  day.  Food-troughs  should 
be  used  in  small  runs,  the  ground  getting  foul,  and  therefore  clean  troughs 
are  best.  In  "the  open"  ground  the  grain,  etc.,  may  be  scattered,  chang- 
ing the  spot  every  day.  A  suitable  building  should  be  erected  to  keep  food 
and  all  necessary  accessories  when  not  in  actual  use,  etc. 

The  perches  in  the  houses  must  be  round  and  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  so  that  the  fowl  can  grip  them  with  the  foot,  firmly  and  yet 
easily.  Flat  perches  distort  the  outer  toes,  and  in  some  instances  cause 
lameness.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  a  flat  perch  prevents  crooked  breasts, 
which  are  caused  from  a  want  of  lime  in  the  bones,  and  is  constitutional. 
The  leading  poultry  men  of  the  United  States  use  fiat  perches,  and  consider 
round  perches  in  a  marked  degree  the  cause  of  crooked  breasts.  If  the 
fowls  run  unconfined,  it  is  well  to  have  a  dusting-house,  and  also  a  nesting- 


i6 


The  Poultry  Book 


or  laying-house,  or  houses  with  baskets  and  boxes  properly  fitted  inside 
with  several  small  closable  entrances.  This  is  preferable  to  having  them 
in  the  roosting-house. 

All  the  roosting-houses  should  have  either  open-wire,  paled  or  latticed 
doors  during  the  summer  to  allow  of  thorough  ventilation ;  the  usual  close- 
boarded  ones  should,  however,  be  used  in  the  winter. 


LIGHT    BRAHMA    HEN 

Owned  hy  W.  R.  Lonj;,  Illinois. 

Frojn  a  photograph  hy  courtesy  of '•Commercial  Poultry . 


DO  2 

c  - 

I  i 

g  i 

■< 

P.  ^ 

?  I 

<  -^ 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCKEREL 

Dressed  Poultry  Show,  Agricultural  Hall,  December  22,  1899.     Showing  the  fine  form  and  fully-fatted  breast. 

A  superb  fowl. 


THE     VARIETIES    T(3     KEEP 


George  O.   Brown,  Maryland 


I  would  we  were  all  of  one  mind,  and  that  one  mind  good." — Cymbcline. 


;HAT  variety  of  poultry  to  keep  depends  very  much  on 
locality,  whether  for  table  or  Qgg  purposes,  whether  for 
fancy  or  commerce,  or  both ;  a  wide  range  over  grass  or  in 
confined  spaces,  for  size  or  quality  of  flesh,  beauty  only  or 
utility,  or  these  combined ;  whether  they  should  be  but 
layers  and  non-sitters,  or  whether  an  "all-round"  fowl 
is  desired — that  is,  one  fairly  good  for  the  table  and  reliable  for  a  reasonable 
quantity  of  eggs  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer.  All  these  requirements 
must  have  careful,  grave  and  deep  consideration  before  purchasing  the 
varieties  ultimately  selected  as  in  all  ways  to  be  the  most  suitable. 

For  table  purposes  probably  the  best  general-purpose  breeds  are  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  White  Wyandottes.  At  almost  any  age,  where  the 
flock  has  been  properly  cared  for,  these  varieties  are  in  excellent  table  con- 
dition. Their  plump  shape,  well-rounded  breasts,  broad  backs  and  well- 
developed  thighs  make  a  most  desirable  combination,  and  cause  them  to 
present  an  appearance,  when  dressed,  that  is  inviting  and  is  a  great  selHng 
factor.  The  Houdan,  a  French  breed,  is  also  an  excellent  table  fowl.  It 
possesses  an  abundance  of  breast  meat  which  is  juicy  and  tender ;  is  small 


i8 


The    Poultry    Book 


of  bone.  Its  chief  objection  is  that  it  is  not  yellow-skinned.  The  Creve 
Coeur,  and  La  Fleche,  also  French,  are  good  table  fowls.  The  Houdan, 
however,  is  the  favorite  in  the  United  States,  as  it  is  much  hardier. 

The  Langshans  and  Light  Brahmas  are  the  best  of  the  Asiatics  for  table 
purposes.  The  first -named  lacks  the  yellow  skin  that  is  so  popular  in 
dressed  fowls.     Orpingtons  and  Rhode  Island  Reds,  which  resemble  each 


FOUR-MONTHS  -OLD    CROSS-BRED    DORKING    AND    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCKEREL 

Exceedingly  good  breast,  quality  fine,  very  thin  skin. 

other  very  much  in  shape,  are  being  "boomed"  as  wonderful  table  fowls 
and  "general  purposers." 

"As  regards  the  Black  Orpington,  a  clear-shanked  Langshan  is  better,  and 
always  has  been.  This  last  may  be  kept  with  great  advantage,  and  I  prefer 
it  to  that  with  the  feathered  shanks."  The  above,  under  quotation  marks, 
is  an  English  opinion.  In  the  United  States  a  "clean-shanked"  Langshan 
w^ould  not  be  tolerated.  It  would  be  disqualified  for  the  show-room,  and 
w^ould  be  classed  as  a  mongrel  on  account  of  absence  of  breed 
requirements . 

Besides  these,  there  is  that  vastly  overrated  novelty,  the  "Cornish 
Indian."  As  a  utility  fowl  it  is  no  favorite  of  mine.  It  has  been  boomed 
to  the  very  utmost,  and  by  some  thoughtlessly  and  recklessly  so,  and 
assertions  made  that  were  scarcely  facts.  If  all  that  has  been  said  of  it 
were  true,  it  would  be  perfection.  It  has  been  said  that,  crossed  with  the 
Dorking,  it  imiproves  that  breed ;  but  it  is  the  other  way  about — the  latter 
improves  the  former.  The  flesh  of  the  Cornish  Indian  is  dry  eating,  and, 
when  served  as  cold  fowl,  hard.  The  breast  is  always  lean,  the  meat  short- 
grained,  the  skin  thin,  and,  including  all  the  fat,  mostly  yellow,  which  last 


The   Varieties   to    Keep  19 

accumulates  quickly  about  the  abdomen,  back  and  internally,  while  the 
birds  as  shown  dead  and  plucked  vary  very  much  in  form,  size  and  color, 
being  from  buff  to  a  bright  orange,  this  tending  to  lower  its  value  as  a  high- 
class  market  fowl,  and  not  so  readily  realizing  a  profit.  As  layers  they 
cannot  be  commended,  while  as  chickens  they  are  slow  of  growth  and  require 
time  to  ripen .  They  are  large  and  heavy  in  bone  commensurate  with  their  si  ze . 
The  late  Mr.  George  Brooke,  one  of,  if  not  the  largest,  poultry  sales- 
men in  Leadenhall  Market,  London,  a  past  master  of  the  Poulters'  Company, 
and  one  whose  opinion  was  of  real  value,  being,  as  it  was,  unbiassed,  said 
that  the  booming  of  the  Cornish  Indian  as  a  table  fowl  and  good  for  a 
Dorking  cross  was  unwise,  and  disastrous  to  the  salable  and  the  better 
qualities  of  our  older  breeds,  and  had  hardened  the  flesh  and  totally  ruined 
the  time-honored  whiteness  of  breast-meat,  fat  and  skin   which  so  long 


^^ 


i 


) 


LANGSHAN    COCKEREL    NOT    FATTED 

Author's — bred  from  MissCroad's. 


and  worthily  held  such  a  high  position  and  prestige  as  the  par  excellence 
boiling  fowl,  the  more-than-gold  stain  rendering  them  unsalable  as  such. 
"Look,"  said  he,  pointing  to  some  rows  of  dressed  poultry  on  and  about 
adjoining  stalls,  "there  is  not  a  good  'boiler'  amongst  them" ;  and  he  was 
perfectly  right.  We  heedlessly  spoil  our  own,  and  then  cry  out  for  the 
better  class  and  more  salable  French  breeds.  We  shall  never  learn  wisdom 
while  every  mouth  is  open  ready  to  swallow  the  wild  talk  of  the  commer- 
cially interested  few,  instead  of  listening  to  the  calmer  and  often  more 


20 


The    Poultry    Book 


thoughtful  experience  of  the  many.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  such  fowls 
as  the  Cornish  Indian  would  have  found  no  room  in  our  southern  home- 
steads ;  it  would  not  have  been  tolerated  among  those  of  the  magnificent 
breed  of  many  generations.  Then,  if  these  are  progressive  times,  why 
should  it  be  so  to-day  ? 

As  to  the  breeds  when  the  eggs  are  to  be  the  source  of  profit  or  require- 
ment, the  Langshan  still  stands  first  for  beauty  and  quantity;  then  the 
Brahmas.    Dark  and  Lights  have  many  friends,  being  highly  egg-productive 


LANGSHAN 

all,  1897,  Miss  Croail 


though  in  a  lesser  degree  than  the  Langshan,  and  this  is  chiefly  owing  to 
their  unwieldly  size  and  ridiculous  over-feathering  of  the  thighs,  legs, 
shank  and  feet,  these  being  often  clothed  with  large  falcon  hocks.  The 
American  type  is  far  the  best — more  useful  as  a  fowl  and  more  productive, 
and  some  have  had  a  record  of  more  than  three  hundred  eggs  in  the  year. 
If  kept,  the  old  style  of  Brahma  is  far  the  best  both  for  early  growth, 
flesh  and  general  market  value. 

The  reputation  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  is  good  in  all  colors,  but  the 
barred  variety  for  the  farm  and  market  has  the  preference,  these  coming  to 
maturity  early. 

For  white  eggs  in  number  the  ^Mediterranean  breeds  are  preeminent, 
both  for  size  and  purity  of  shell  color,  though  the  fowls  themselves  are  but 


The   Varieties   to    Keep 


21 


dry  eating,  even  if  fatted.  Of  the  best  and  first  favorite  is  the  Black 
Minorca,  next  the  White  Leghorn,  then  those  of  color.  The  Whites  lay  a 
little  larger  egg  than  the  other  Leghorns,  and  they  are  generally  kept  on 
the  large  egg  farms.  All  are  principally  summer  layers,  and  at  such 
season  amply  fill  the  egg-basket ;  they  are  also  considered  profitable 
to  keep.  The  common  Italian  fowl,  the  black  and  white  spangled  of 
which  is  known  as  the  Ancona  in  the  United  States,  are  mostly  prolific 
egg-layers,  while  all  the  varieties  of  Hamburgs  I  have  found  equally 
good ;  though  the  eggs  are  small,  still  the  weight  is  made  up  by  quantity, 
and  thus  have  proved  in  a  way  profitable.  The  old  white-faced  Black 
Spanish  fowl  was  at  one  time  a  good  table  fowl  and  a  prolific  layer,  and 
might  be  again  if 
rightly  selected  and 
managed,  and  so 
also  the  beautiful 
old  Polish,  formerly 
called  the  Ham- 
burgh. All  these  lat- 
ter are  non-incuba- 
tors, which  is  a  great 
advantage  when  the 
space  for  keeping  is 
but  limited.  I  hope 
again  to  see  the 
Black  Spanish  in 
the  ascendant. 

Good  laying  strains  of  most  fowls  may  be  made  or  ruined  entirely  by 
want  of  attention,  proper  supervision  and  management,  the  best  and  most 
prolific  pullets  or  hens  only  being  kept  and  hindered  from  sitting,  and  these 
mated  with  cockerels  or  cocks  bred  from  hens  tmusually  egg  productive.  As 
proof,  Mrs.  Campbell,  of  Uley,  Gloucestershire,  established  a  strain  of  non- 
incubating  Dark  Brahmas,  their  average  lay  being  1 70  eggs  per  annum.  Mr. 
George  Roper,  of  Woking,  has  done  the  same  by  his  old  English  Game,  and 
in  this  direction  I  have  met  with  similar  success,  some  of  my  old  English 
Game  hens  seldom,  and  others  never,  wanting  to  sit,  or,  if  so,  easily  put  off. 

The  sum  total  of  it  all  is,  that  whatever  breeds  are  selected,  have  the 
best  and  the  truest  bred.     The  first  cost  is  Httle  more,  yet  for  the  extra 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    PULLET 
Bred  by  tlie  author.     Second  prize  at  the  Dairy  Show. 


22 


The    Poultry   Book 


expenditure  there  is  the  gain  not  only  of  the  contemplation  of  the  beautiful, 
but  the  inward,  satisfaction  that,  should  you  wish  to  change  what  3^ou  have, 
such  can  easih^  be  effected,  for  a  good  thing  will  command  a  price,  while  the 
low  and  inferior  will  not  find  even  common  acceptance,  but  utter  rejection. 


MISS    CUBBINGS      DORKING    AND    PLYMOUTH    ROCK    PULLET 

Buy  from  those  well  known,  those  respected  not  only  for  the  excellence  of 
their  stock  but  also  for  their  tried  integrity  and  upright  dealing,  and  bear 
in  mind  that  few  sell  their  best  birds  excepting  at  large  and  almost  retaining 
prices ;  so  if  you  wish  at  the  start  to  be  anywhere  near  perfection,  you  must 
be  prepared  to  pay  for  it.  The  most  economical  plan  is  either  to  buy  eggs 
at  a  good  price  from  a  reliable  source,  or  to  purchase  culls  that  have  some 
minor  defect  (not  disqualification),  and  others  that  are  without  or  deficient 
in  those  points  which  one  or  the  other  has  in  excess.  I  have  thus  bred, 
and  known  others  to  breed,  better  stock  this  way  than  by  the  mating  of 
those  possessing  a  great  number  of  points  of  excellence,  provided  always 
the  strain  of  which  they  came  was  old,  well  cared  for,  and  of  noted  reputa- 
tion. It  is  often,  too,  erroneously  said  that  like  begets  like.  Were  this 
so,  variety  would  be  non-existent ;  and  one  has  but  to  look  around  to  at 
once  prove  the  fallacy  of  the  assertion.  What  it  takes  a  genius  to  make,  a 
fool  may  easily  destroy.  The  one  by  piecing  builds  up  and  rectifies,  the 
other  by  want  of  knowledge  only  weakens  and  spoils.  Therefore  buy  where 
the  best  is  kept,  and,  if  possible,  pedigree  bred,  and  in  all  times  prospering. 


The   Varieties   to    Keep 


23 


Cross-Breeds 

I  do  not  advise  such  to  be  kept,  either  for  fancy  or  profit,  feeling  sure, 
from  long  experience,  that  pure  breeds  by  careful  management  and  mating 
are  much  more  reliable  and  trustworthy,  and  far  nearer  perfection  for  any 
kind  of  fowl  either  for  show  or  utility ;  also,  they  are  more  valuable  at  all 
times  and  seasons  than  mongrels  or  cross-breeds,  young  or  old,  the  latter 
being  of  no  value  when  past  their  prime,  while  the  true  and  pure  of  any 
high-class  strain  will  command  a  certain  price,  even  at  that  age  when  their 
creative  powers  are  weakened  and  their  eggs  few  and  late. 


FIRST    PRIZE    SILVER    WYANDOTTE    HEN 
Ref't-oduceii  hy  courtesy  of  •'Commercial  Poultry,"  Chicago. 


ttJ^ ^^^^l^^^-^'^'^'iM^  } 


fIRST    PLYMUUTH     ROCK    IMPORTED    INTO    ENGLAND    BY    MR.    JAMES    LONG 


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Photograph  by  C.  Reid,  Wis  haw,  N.  3. 
BLACK-BREASTED    BROWN    LEGHORN    COCK 


MATING    AND    BREEDING 


I.   K.   Felch,   Massachusetts 


"  Look  here  upon  this  picture,  and  on  this; 
The  counterfeit  pre;;entment  of  two  brothers." — Hamlet. 

N  THE  discussion  of  this  important  subject  I  quote  Mr.  Weir's 
own  words  in  the  first  few  pages  and  then  begin  my 
comments :  As  to  the  mating,  the  youth,  age,  purity  of  race, 
influence  of  sex,  and  the  times,  seasons  and  duration  of 
strong,  healthy  fertihty,  as  well  as  the  stain  of  impregnation 
(if  any),  much  may  be  said,  and  also  how  far  the  blending 
of  the  blood,  habits,  form  and  constitution  of  either  or  both  parents  is 
to  be  found  in  the  offspring,  apparent  or  otherwise,  perhaps  lying  dormant, 
in  some  cases,  for  one  or  more  generations,  and  afterward  unexpectedly 
appearing,  as  is  shown  by  several  instances  on  record. 

Although  few  subjects  connected  with  our  poultry  have  received 
so  much  attention,  none  are  so  little  understood  as  the  matching,  breeding, 
cross-breeding  and  pure  breeding  of  the  dift'erent  races  of  fowls.  One 
man  will  strengthen  and  perfect  a  strain  or  breed,  while  another  will  com- 
pletely ruin  the  good  one  that  he  has  by  wrong  selection,  treatment  and 


28  The    Poultry    Book 

matching,  yet  more  frequently  by  the  introduction  from  another  stock, 
though  of  the  same  variety,  and  for  what  he  cahs  gaining  vigor  by  adding 
fresh  blood,  when  stamina  is  more  surely  arrived  at  by  mating  the  finest, 
the  most  healthy,  the  strongest,  the  most  matured,  with  the  best  constitution 
of  either  sex,  and  he  must  also  match  for  age  and  other  differences.  If 
certain  quaHties  are  to  be  sought  for  or  retained,  the  cock  must  be  the 
youngest ;  if  others,  the  hens  or  pullet  hens — that  is,  those  of  the  second 
year;  but  in  all  cases  the  birds  must  be  well  grown,  hearty,  strong,  of  proper 
form,  well  shaped  in  limbs,  lusty,  true  to  their  breed,  and  of  the  highest 
quality  both  of  flesh  and  feathering. 

If  large,  well-plumed  birds  are  required,  then  none  of  the  hens  should 
exceed  three  years  in  age.  Of  course  there  are,  and  sometimes  must  be, 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  if  either  is  to  be  the  older,  let  it  be  the  hen,  a 
second-year  cock  or  stag  generally  being  at  his  best,  and  3^outh  to  youth 
was  and  should  be  the  general  and  most  approved  practice.  In  choosing 
either,  let  it  be  from  your  own  yard  and  of  those  you  have  kept  pure — 
without  crossing-out  with  any,  though  of  the  same  breed  or  race  that  yours 
is  made  of.  What  will  strongly  conduce  to  the  vigor  of  your  stock  is  the 
sending  away  eggs  to  a  distant  part  of  the  country,  and  having  the  chickens 
entirely  reared  into  full  growth  on  other  soil  different  from  that  of  your 
runs  or  ranges.  The  plan  of  varying  the  locality  acts  better  than  any 
crossing  to  obtain  stamina;  but,  for  want  of  this,  your  cock  or  hen  birds 
may  be  sent  to  a  distant  part  to  molt  and  regain  their  strength  for  the 
duties  required  of  them  in  the  spring.  And  again,  the  best  for  choice  of 
stock  are  the  well-grown  ]\Iarch  hatched,  which  has  been  so  long  and  uni- 
versally admitted  as  to  be  regarded  among  poultry  tenders  of  farms  and 
homesteads  as  a  wise  saying.  If  you  cross-out  with  a  bird  from  another 
stock  of  which  you  know  but  little,  though  it  is  apparently  good,  let  it  be 
with  a  hen  and  not  a  cockerel,  for  then  if  wrong  the  whole  progeny  can 
easily  be  eliminated;  but  if  it  is  a  cock,  then  all  your  stock  is  tainted.  In 
the  choice  of  the  male  bird,  let  him  be,  if  anything,  rather  lighter  made 
than  your  hens.  Let  both  be  round  and  full-breasted,  and  of  true  and 
right  proportion  relatively  one  to  the  other — one,  if  anything,  having  in 
excess  what  the  other  lacks ;  this  is  found  to  answer  better  than  when  all 
are  of  equal  forms  and  dimensions.  Each  should  be  alert,  active,  full 
of  life  and  energy,  and  absolutely  free  from  any  injury,  either  by  the  loss 
of  or  a  twisted  toe — such  deformitv  once  bred  in  is  difficult  to  eradicate. 


Mating   and    Breeding  29 

Experience  has  proved  this,  as  is  even  color  or  loss  of  a  nail,  for  reasons 
which  will  be  presently  shown. 

Feeling  sure,  as  I  do  from  long  and  careful  observation,  that  pure  old 
breeds  are  the  very  best,  if  properly  selected,  for  all  purposes,  these  will  be 
first  treated  of  and  that  they  are  presumably  of  your  own  stock.  I  am 
certain  that  there  is  no  greater  fallacy,  and  nothing  more  detrimental  to 
the  well-being  of  our  best  poultry,  than  the  modern  untutored  craze  for 
crossing-out.  No  one  who  understands  the  true  art  of  breeding  and 
rearing  would  even  advise,  much  less  practise  it. 

If  you  wish  to  breed  healthy  and  strong  birds  of  any  particular  strain, 
never  let  the  young  cocks  that  you  intend  breeding  from  run  wdth  any 
hens  or  pullets  until  the  time  that  you  match  up  in  November  or  December, 
according  to  the  breed,  and  never  let  your  hens  or  pullets  run  with  any 
other  breed,  cock  or  cockerel,  whether  in  or  out  of  season.  It  is  best  to 
keep  all  the  cocks  and  cockerels,  hens  and  pullets,  separated  until  they 
are  wanted.  A  flock  of  hens  may  consist  of  twenty  if  they  agree,  but  if 
one  or  more  is  objected  to  by  the  others  she  is  best  removed  at  once,  other- 
wise she  will  be  disfigured,  maimed,  or  killed.  If  the  hens  are  allowed 
to  run  with  another  variety  of  cock  or  cocks,  they,  for  pure  breeding,  will 
become  tainted,  and  the  stain  once  there  is  never  eradicated,  and  they 
are  likely  to  throw  back,  as  I  have  known  in  many  instances,  though  the 
late  ]\Ir.  B.  P.  Brent,  a  good  authority,  says  in  the  Cottage  Gardener  that 
after  a  hen  has  been  introduced  to  a  cock  for  three  weeks,  her  progeny 
will  follow  the  breed  of  the  cock.  This  is  certainly  not  so,  nor  anything 
like  it.  If  a  pullet  has  received  the  attentions  of  a  cock,  and  then  is  removed 
from  him  and  placed  with  another,  the  produce  is  Hkely  to  be  of  a  very 
mixed  description ;  this  is  not  always  so,  but  in  cases  of  a  decided  preference 
for  the  first,  as  some  fowls  not  unfrequently  exhibit.  Out  of  several  cases 
that  have  come  to  my  knowledge  and  in  practice,  here  is  one :  I  had  a 
dark  buff -colored  pullet ;  she  was  bred  of  old  English  Game  for  two  gen- 
erations, but  there  was  one  cross-out  with  a  Dorking  cock  before  that; 
with  this  exception,  all  her  antecedents  were  old  English  Game.  She  ran 
awhile  with  my  old  Game  cock,  which  was  in  color  a  black-breasted  bright 
red,  somewhat  splashed  with  white.  At  the  expiration  of  a  week  she  was 
removed  and  put  with  a  Golden  Hamburg  cock  that  had  sported  to  having 
white  shanks,  feet  and  toe-nails.  After  being  nearly  three  weeks  with 
the  Hamburg,  eleven  of  her  eggs  were  incubated,  with  the  following  sur- 


30  The    Poultry    Book 

prising  result :  There  were  four  cockerels ;  three  resembled  the  Game 
cock,  with  much  white  among  the  feathers,  which  were  of  a  red-gold  ground 
and  laced  and  spangled  with  black  like  the  Hamburg  cock;  three  had 
single  combs  like  the  Game  cock  in  shape  and  fineness,  and  one  a  rose- 
comb  like  the  Hamburg ;  two  had  five  toes,  thus  reverting  to  the  Dorking 
cross  more  than  two  generations  back  in  the  hen.  Two  of  the  cockerels 
had  white  earlobes,  one  partly  red,  and  the  fourth  entirely  so.  All  had 
white  shanks  and  feet.  Of  the  pullets,  all  had  blue  shanks  and  feet  with 
white  toe-nails.  In  plumage  they  much  resembled  the  Hamburg  cock 
in  color  and  markings,  but  all  were  more  or  less  splashed  with  white,  though 
not  to  the  extent  of  the  cockerels,  but  one  was  nearly  white,  and  also 
showed  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Game  cock.  All  had  white  earlobes, 
thus  showing  the  chicks  had  the  racial  and  other  distinctions  of  two  fathers, 
wdiich  were  noticed  and  remarked  not  only  by  myself  but  all  who  saw  them. 
At  present  I  have  reserved  one  cockerel ;  he  is  peculiarly  handsome,  resem- 
bHng  a  Laced  Golden  Hamburg,  yet  having  white  in  his  wings;  the  shanks, 
feet,  and  toe-nails  are  very  white.  One  pullet  was  a  perfect  Hamburg 
in  color,  with  slight  white  markings,  having  a  rose  comb  and  bright  blue 
shanks;  others  as  described,  some  with  four,  others  five  toes.  Here,  it 
will  be  observed,  is  a  curious  mixture  of  natural  forces,  either  of  which 
could  scarcely  be  supposed  to  exist,  or,  if  so,  were  so  long  latent  that  it 
would  be  of  advantage  to  know  the  limit,  if  any,  of  such  endurance.  Here 
is  another  case:  Some  ten  3'ears  ago  I  received  from  a  friend  a  spur- 
shanked  partridge-colored  Gime  hen.  She  was  said  to  be  of  pure  pedigree 
breed,  and  the  stock  from  which  she  came  had  been  bred  most  carefully 
for  years.  Mine  were  in-bred  for  many  years,  and  were  of  the  same  color. 
After  breeding  from  her  with  a  cock  of  my  own  strain,  I  bred  from  her 
daughters,  and  again  from  their  daughters,  each  time  matched  to  stags 
of  my  strain,  and  all  breeding  true,  until  1893,  w^hen  two  of  the  chickens 
hatched  from  the  eggs  of  one  of  my  best  partridge  hens  proved  to  be  almost 
black,  with  slightly  gray  breast.  Knowing  how  my  birds  had  been  bred 
for  thirty  years,  I  concluded  that  the  new  departure  was  a  "reversion" 
through  the  hen  I  had  of  my  friend.  On  writing  to  him  I  learned  that 
about  twenty  years  before  he  mated  a  high-class  Fumess  hen  into  his 
stock  to  deepen  the  color,  and  that  was  the  only  way  that  the  color  could 
be  accounted  for.  Thus  the  cross  had  lain  dormant  more  than  twenty  years, 
when  it  suddenly  appeared  in  my  yard;  and  not  only  that,  but  it  still 


MR.    HERBERT    REEVES     SILVER-GRAV    OORI 
The  winner  of  many  prizes. 


Ihotogra   ph  ly  tp .  Scorer,  havant 
MR.    HERBERT    REEVES'    SILVER-GRAY    DORKING    COCKEREL 

The  winner  of  many  prizes. 


Mating    and    Breeding  33 

appears  in  two  or  three  chickens  every  year.  There  was  one  dark  pullet 
in  the  season  1899,  and  again  more  in  1900  and  1901 ;  and  this  year,  1902,* 
I  have  had  four  dark  pullets  with  brown  shanks  and  feet.  This  atavism 
is  yet  apparent  in  the  old  breed  of  Derby  Reds,  which  forty-five  years 
ago  had  white  or  daw  eyes,  w^hite  in  the  wings  and  tail ;  and  though  during 
that  time  this  has  often  been  bred  out,  still  after  a  generation  or  two  it 
reappears,  and  it  is  a  predominant  factor  in  the  composition  of  the  time- 
honored  old  breed.  Mr.  John  Harris,  of  Liskeard,  writes  very  ably  on 
this — what  is  called  by  the  Game-cock  breeders  "bloodstain."  He  says: 
"Many  breeders  having  a  faulty  or  soft  breed  cock  look  out  for  an  extra 
good  one  to  cross  with,  thinking  the  first  cross  is  4-8  producer,  which 
put  to  the  sound  bird  6-8  producer,  again  put  to  a  sound  bird  and  the 
said  result  is  all  8 ;  and  they  are  supposed  to  be  as  good  as  they  can  be 
made.  But  it  is  a  mistake ;  many  will  retain  the  former  bad  qualities,  for, 
breed  as  3^ou  will,  there  is  the  taint  left."  By  way  of  example:  Fill  a 
bottle  with  half  ink  and  half  water,  then  take  out  half  of  the  liquid  and 
fill  again  with  water,  then  take  out  half  the  liquid  left  and  once  more  fill 
with  water,  and  so  on  until  it  looks  clear;  then  taste  it,  and  you  will  find 
a  flavor  of  the  ink  still,  and  so  is  the  blood  of  a  true-bred  Game  if  once 
mixed  with  the  dunghill  breed. 

Theory  is  much,  but  practice  is  more,  and  experience  is  most.  Rules  may 
be  made  by  which  success  should  be  achieved ;  lines  of  thought  may  converge 
and  tend  to  the  belief  that  from  such  and  such  conditions  certain  results  must 
follow%  and  this  simply  from  the  reason  that  such  is  likely,  and  apparently 
more  so  than  not,  and  yet  instead  of  a  prize  there  is  drawn — a  blank. 

In  Nature  there  are  certain  not  yet  understood  hidden  forces  that  are 
not  only  beyond  human  knowledge  but  also  humanity's  control.  It  is 
the  "Why  and  the  Wherefore"  that  we  have  yet  to  learn,  even  though 
they  are  deemed  as  the  possible  and  probable,  yet,  being  beyond  our  guid- 
ance, are  truly  not  so.  Nature's  laws  are  not  only  inscrutable,  but  are, 
whatever  may  be  urged  to  the  contrary,  abiding  and  unalterable.  If 
we  could  fit  things  with  an  exactness  that  should  show  no  deviation,  whether 
we  willed  it  or  not,  then  we  might  be  said  to  have  gained  a  supreme  power 
that  at  present,  strive  as  we  may,  is  simply  unattainable. 

*July,  1902 — I  have  now  bred  from  the  same  birds  a  purely  black  chick,  comb,  face, 
feathering,  shanks  and  feet  being  that  color,  with  white  toe-nails.  The  skin  is 
also  dark. 


34 


The   Poultry   Book 


Here  is  a  case:  I  have 
a  dark  gray  old  Kent  five- 
toed  hen.  She  is  pure  in 
color,  being  only  of  the  two 
colors,  black  and  white,  with 
their  variant  gray.  She  is 
of  the  true  type  in  make  and 
habit,  and  lays  a  snow-white 
egg  of  the  rounded  shape 
peculiar  to  the  breed.  With 
her  I  mate  a  Dorking  silver- 
gray  stag.  He,  like  the  hen, 
has  but  the  black,  white 
and  gray  colors,  is  good  in 
shape  and  shank  properties, 
there  being  not  a  tint  of 
any  other  color.  From  these 
I  set  a  dozen  eggs,  out  of 
which  were  hatched  twelve 
dark  gray  chicks,  which 
matured  exactly  as  expected 
in  point  of  coloring  and 
form.  Then  another  brood  with  the  same  result.  Again  another, 
and  these,  all  but  one,  quite  different  from  the  parents  and  the  former 
chickens,  the  whole  number  of  pullets  save  one  being  stained  with 
a  yellowish  tint  or  red  on  the  breast  and  wings,  the  combs  also  being 
smaller  and  with  less  lap,  while  two  had  only  four  toes  and  one  four  and 
five.  Looking  at  the  two  first  families,  and  they  besides  the  third,  there 
would  be  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  they  were  of  a  different  strain,  and 
most  surely  they  appeared  to  be  so.  But  why  this  difference?  It  was 
thought  to  be  atavism  on  the  part  of  the  cock,  the  silver-gray  Dorkings 
having  been  made  by  a  cross  with  Lord  Hill's  white-shanked  silver-gray 
Game  and  the  old  gray  Kent  and  Sussex  five-toed  fowls.  Yes;  but  why 
should  all  the  two  first  broods  be  clear  grays  and  black  with  white  breasts 
in  the  pullets,  and  those  of  the  third  brood  strongly  different,  save  one? 
Why  not  all  the  broods  ?  It  was  argued  that  possibly  the  hen,  by  laying, 
was  weaker,  and  the  stamina  of  the  cock  prevailed.     This  seemed  feasible, 


CROSS-BREED     NO. 


Mating   and   Breeding 


35 


but  then,  to  what  period  of  time  was  the  reversion  confined  ?  The  cock 
was  one  of  Mr.  Herbert  Reeves's  silver-gray  strain.  But  now  comes  a 
further  surprise,  if  anything  can  surprise  "the  experienced."  A  fourth 
brood  was  hatched  later,  and  every  one  of  these  (ten)  were  of  the  true 
first  coloring ;  not  a  shade  of  anything  else  but  black,  white  and  gray.  Of 
these,  five  were  cockerels  and  five  pullets,  and  two  of  the  last  are  so 
true  that  they  are  a  part  of  my  gray  breeding  stock,  and  all  much 
admired.  I  simply  give  the  facts,  and  can  offer  no  elucidation  of 
the  mystery.  That  was  in  1901.  The  hen  was  again  matched  to 
the  same  cock,  and  thirteen  eggs  were  put  under  a  gray  pullet,  the 
result  (January,  1902)  being  again  dark  and  light  gray  chickens  like  the 
first  hatchings. 

Again,  some  of  the  pullets  from  the  above  pair  lay  a  very,  very  slightly 
tinted  egg,  though  those  of  the  mother-hen  are  of  the  purest  white.     This 
shows    that    the    blend    from 
the  cock's  side  still  bears  the 
taint  of  long-bygone   crosses. 

A  few  years  ago,  having 
some  black-breasted  o  1  d 
English  Game  with  yellow 
shanks  and  feet,  I  gave  a 
cockerel  to  a  friend  to  cross 
in  with  a  black-breasted 
brown-red  Leghorn.  At  first 
cross  the  Leghorn  had  the 
best  of  it ;  next  Leghorn  cross, 
and  the  produce  looked  pure- 
bred Leghorn  ;  but  on  breed- 
ing these  together  the  old 
English  Game  blood  reasserted 
itself  to  such  an  extent  that 
in  two  generations  the  Game 
appearance  far  preponderated . 
This  is  by  no  means  a  solitary 
instance  of  where  cross- 
breeding has  been  resorted  to 
for  the  sake  of  giving  stamina,  cross-breed  no.  2,  avith  feathered  legs 


36  The    Poultry    Book 

form  or  color,  the  preponderance  of  the  older  breed  crushing,  as  it  were, 
the  weaker  out  of  existence,  as  was  the  case  with  these  so-called  Black 
Orpingtons  and  the  true  Langshan  cross,  many  of  these  coming  with 
feathered  shanks  and  Langshan  form  when  least  expected  to  do  so.  as 
also  the  Brahma  and  Shanghai  cross  not  unfrequently  shows  itself  in  the 
modern  Dorking. 

Mr.  Theodore  Sternberg,  writing  in  The  American  Fancier,  March 
31,  1894,  tells  of  two  hatches  of  chickens  running  in  the  same  yard,  one  of 
Leghorns,  hatched  in  May,  the  other  Cochins,  hatched  in  January.  About 
the  middle  of  September  he  sold  all  the  Leghorns.  All  the  chicks  were 
raised  together.  Leghorns  and  Cochins.  But  to  quote  Mr.  Theodore 
Sternberg:  "Now  I  had  several  January -hatched  Buff  Cochin  pullets, 
which  began  laying  on  the  25th  of  June.  After  the  sale  of  these  Leghorns 
none  but  Cochin  cockerels  were  with  the  pullets.  After  my  return  from 
Chicago  the  pullets  continued  laying ;  the  clutch  laid  nine  eggs  and  wanted 
to  sit.  I  set  her  on  these  nine  eggs.  Imagine  m.y  suprise,  the  pullet  being 
set  November  3d,  at  finding  her  hatch  of  seven  chicks  to  be  plainly  a 
Leghorn  cross.  ]\Iore  than  six  weeks  after  the  removal  of  the  Leghorns 
the  first  egg  of  the  setting  was  laid,  and  yet  the  cross  was  plain."  In  this 
case  Mr.  Theodore  Sternberg  apparently  has  failed  to  note  whether  the 
Cochin  cock  actually  mated  with  the  pullet,  as  it  is  just  possible  he  did  not ; 
if  that  were  so,  it  would  go  far  to  explain  the  mystery.  I  will  give  a  case 
that  occurred  here:  I  had  a  black  hen,  a  cross  between  a  cock  Cornish 
Indian  and  a  Leghorn  hen.  She  was  very  good  in  color,  with  a  wonderful 
green  sheen.  She  had  been  running  with  a  black-breasted  red  Game  cock 
that  had  white  shanks,  from  which  she  was  removed  and  put  with  a  dark- 
colored  Dorking  cock ;  two  days  after  she  was  placed  with  a  spangled 
Hamburg  cock.  She  was  allowed  to  sit  on  nine  eggs  that  she  had  laid 
after  being  put  with  the  Dorking  cockerel  and  the  Hamburg.  She 
hatched  out  seven  chicks,  two  of  which  resembled  the  Game-cock  in  shape, 
and  were  nearly  black  in  color,  but  had  some  white  in  the  tail  like  that  of 
the  Game  cock;  both  had  whitish  shanks,  and  one  with  a  few  feathers  on 
the  outer  side,  but  none  on  the  feet.  I  give  an  illustration  of  this  bird,  a 
cockerel.  Two  were  Dorking-like  pullets,  with  whitish  shanks  and  feet 
with  five  toes ;  the  feathers  of  both  were  black.  I  give  a  drawing  of  one  of 
the  pullets.  The  other  three  were  black,  with  black  shanks  devoid  of 
feathering,   and  had  much  of    the   Hamburg    appearance;  but   what   is 


Mating    and   Breeding  37 

curious,  two  had  white  eyes,  the  iris  being  clear  white  or  neariy  so,  similar 
to  high-bred  Azeels.  I  give  a  drawing  of  one  of  these  pullets.  Now  it  will 
be  observed  that  these  all  came  from  a  clutch  of  eggs  that  were  laid  by  the 
black  pullet  after  she  left  the  Game  cock,  and  were  the  nine  eggs  she  laid 
before  she  wanted  to  sit.  My  opinion  is,  that  if  she  had  not  been  put  to  the 
Dorking  for  the  two  days,  and  then  put  with  the  Hamburg,  it  is  just 
possible  that  she  might  have  hatched  out  seven  chicks  all  showing  the 
Game  cross ;  two  of  them  clearly  did,  even  to  the  white  in  the  tail.  Being 
a  singular  case,  I  made  very  careful  studies  of  the  chicks  as  shown.  All 
were  used  for  table  purposes.  Those  like  the  Game  cock  were  the  best. 
The  Dorkings  were  longer  in  body,  but  not  so  full-breasted,  while  in  the 
Hamburg  cross  the  flesh  was  rather  dark,  though  good  in  quality  and 
quantity.  One  of  these  laid  an  egg;  it  was  white.  But  to  return  to 
Mr.  Theodore  Sternberg.  He  continues:  "I  know  it  is  taught  that  ten 
days  is  sufficient  to  insure  purity ;  but  it  was  not  so  in  this  case.  One  other 
fact :  this  buff  pullet  had  become  broody  after  the  removal  of  the  Leghorn, 
and  the  eggs  were  laid  after  being  broken  up — an  entirely  different  clutch 
of  eggs."  This  might  be  thought  so,  but  the  sequel  proves  the  contrary. 
There  are  cases  on  record  where  a  hen  has  laid  again  after  rearing  a  brood 
of  chicks,  and  that  without  further  contact  with  a  cock,  and  the  eggs  have 
proved  fertile,  as  was  the  case  with  one  of  the  late  Mr.  Stamps'  Game  hens. 
No  Game-cock  breeder  of  the  old  school  would  ever  consider  a  hen  clean 
after  she  has  laid  while  mated.  Mr.  Theodore  Sternberg  continues :  ' '  Such 
occurrences  set  us  all  thinking  of  the  possible  eft'ect  of  the  mingling  of 
chicks  of  several  varieties,  and  my  experience  may  suggest  how  many 
sports  can  be  accounted  for.  It  may  be  that  occasionally  a  hen  can  be 
found  which  if  once  exposed  to  a  cross  never  again  breeds  true."  Just  so; 
this  is  too  often  overlooked,  and  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  a  stain  is  left. 
Writing  to  Mr.  Charles  Darwin  on  this  subject,  I  found  he  was  very  strong 
as  to  the  continuation  of  blood  stain,  as  it  is  called  by  some,  as  was  also 
Mr.  WilHam  Yarrell,  V.P.F.Z.S.,  the  author  of  "  British  Birds,  Fishes,  etc." 
Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  in  a  letter  to  me,  quoted  a  case  that  was  known  to  both 
himself  and  Mr.  WilHam  Yarrell,  of  a  woman  that  had  two  children  when 
the  husband  died.  After  awhile  she  married  again,  and  became  the  mother 
of  two  more  children.  From  an  unexpected  cause  the  husband  became 
reduced  in  circumstances,  and  the  relatives  of  the  former  husband,  wishing 
to  relieve  the  wife  of  some  of  her  difficulties,  agreed  to  educate,  etc.,  the 


38 


The   Poultry    Rook 


CROSS-BREED    No.  3,    ALL  BLACK 


run 
of, 


two  first  offspring,  but 
tliat  on  going  to  fetcli 
them  away  from  tlie 
liouse  of  the  mother  tliey 
saw  the  last  two,  and 
were  so  struck  with  the 
extraordinary  likeness  to 
their  deceased  brother 
that  they  provided  for 
the  four — that  is  to  say, 
the  entire  number,  the 
two  children  by  the  first 
husband  and  the  two  by 
the  second. 

As  I  have  heretofore 
said,  all  the  old  Game- 
cock breeders  would  as 
soon  think  of  putting  one 
of  their  hens  up  as  a 
stock  hen,  that  had  once 
r  u  n  with  a  ' '  cra\'en 
cock,  as  though  she  had 
stain  is  never  got  rid 
of   fowls,    much   less   one 


with    a    Dorking.     In    m}^    opinion,    a 

even  out  of  a  carefully  bred  strain 
in  the  individual.  After  a  very  long  experience  and  close  obser\-a- 
tion,  besides  having  had  the  advantage  of  a  wide  and  varied  knowledge 
and  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  best  breeders,  both  of  animals  and  birds, 
I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  stain  will  show  itself  after  many  gen- 
erations, just  the  same  as  an  hereditary  disease  will  appear  and  disappear 
for  many  years,  and  then  show  again  with  renewed  vigor.  This  may  be 
noticed  also  in  the  contour  of  the  face,  which  sometimes  has  a  peculiar 
feature,  and  which  an  inspection  of  the  family  portrait  gallery  shows  was 
in  existence  as  part  of  the  facial  development  of  ancestors  perhaps  centuries 
before  ;  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  generally  there  has  not  been 
"in-and-in"  alliances,  but  perfectly  independent  selections  from  various 
reasons,  either  natural  or  those  influenced  by  real  present  or  prospective 
benefit,  of  or  for  mutual  or  single  interest. 


Mating   and    Breeding 


39 


However,  one  factor  should  not  be  entirely  overlooked,  and  that  is, 
that  the  family  estates  or  property  is  generally  inherited  in  direct  descent 
by  the  male  line ;  therefore,  if  there  is  anything  in  the  assertion  that  the 
contour  and  general  formation  of  the  young  partakes  mostly  of  that  of  the 
male,  while  the  female  generally  supplies  the  requisites  necessary  for  the 
health  and  vigor  of  the  offspring,  so  there  is  just  a  possibility  that  the  male 
continues  longer  to  stamp  his  individuality  on  the  males  as  one  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  breed  beyond  the  power  of  the  female. 

From  what  has  already  been  advanced,  as  tending  to  show  the  extra- 
ordinary and  mysterious  working  of  natural  forces,  it  is  perfectly  apparent 


GAME   AND   LANGSHAN   CORNISH    INDIAN    HEN 
Pearl-eyed. 


that  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  preserve  in  its  purity  and  integrity 
any  particular  breed  or  race  of  either  domestic  animals  or  birds.  Mostly 
the  breeding  of  our  poultry  is  conducted,  if  at  all,  in  a  loose  and  unscientific 


40 


The   Poultry    Book 


manner,  with  too  few  precautions  taken  to  prevent  an  admixture  of  other 
variety,  and  so  keep  it  free  from  degenerating  contamination ;  while  it  is 
clearly  overlooked  that  no  real  dependence  can  be  placed  on  any  but  those 
of  positively  pure  stock.  And  whereas  in  such,  by  critical  choice  of  indi- 
vidual birds,  proper  food  and  seasonable  mating,  large  size  if  wanted, 
early  maturity  and  liberal  produce,  as  surely  to  be  depended  on  as 
the     result,     the    haphazard  adoption     of    the      use      of 

impure     stock    is     at    the  i^MK^M^^  ^^^^   insecure,   and   must 

have  before  it  a   future       ^hH^^^H^^^        of    failure. 

If  a  race  is  pure,  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^-'^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  species 
tres-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  passed  upon,  and 
the  variety  is  kept  ^^HB^^^^^BH^^^^^  scrupulously  i  n  - 
tact  and  distinct,        ^^^K  ^  -    '-'^I^H^^ft        then     and      then 

only  may   it    be        ^^^B^^HlS^'T^  '  expected     that 

the  progeny  will        wKt^^^^^^A^'        ^^  .--  resemble      the 

progenitors      i  n        fiSBs^^cJ  i^^-7  ihl^.         almost    every 

respect,    having,        ^^^Hi^^i''^^'  jOw^'         ^^     ^^     were,    a 

continuity  of  ■BBIJ^SfU.'^  ^^  ^.J^ttK^  ^  form,  color, 
general  appear-  .,— —■  J^'"  /'yf^^^^J^  ance  and  habits^ 
for  it  is  well  mU.!i^L'<u! ^ ,  ; ''"  ^  ^HfH^m  known  that  even 
these    are    hered-       ^^H^k  '  ZJtKr^       itary. 

If,  however,  a  ^^^^Sjt^  ^^^^^^^^  race  is  made  up  of 
mixed  blood,  as,  for  ^BR^^jjjS^^^^^^  nistance,  the  Plymouth 
Rock    or    the    so-  ""^v^."'^'  called    Black 

Orpington,       the     'f7oTo",aph  ^  ,l.u>  :,'iPoJt„      product      do      not 

necessarily  resem-  barred  Plymouth  rock  cock,  showing  ble  their  parents, 
and      they      often  markings  of  wings  widely  differ  both 

among  themselves  and    from    t  h  e  i  r 

progenitors;  and,  indeed,  so  much  so,  that,  were  the  extremes  kept 
distinct  and  perpetuated,  other  new  breeds  might  be  the  ultimate 
result.  Then,  again,  it  might  be  observed  that  some  of  the  offspring 
of  such  cross-breeds  bear  Httle  or  no  resemblance  to  their  parents, 
which  is  the  more  so  when  they  are  the  issue  of  old  birds ;  while  on  the  other 
hand  it  has  been  proved  that,  though  there  may  be  close  breeding  and  con- 
sanguinity in  pure  breed,  with  proper  and  intelHgent  supervision  and 
mating  as  to  age,  constitution  and  healthy  robustness,  their  vigor  is  not 
only  maintained,  but  by  judicious  management  increased,  which  has  been 


Mating    and    Breeding  41 

fully  demonstrated  by  the  habitual  in-breeding  of  the  Game-cock — a  race 
that  for  centuries  has  shown  an  indomitable  valor,  coupled  with  a  mobile 
and  lasting  strength.  A  pure  and  ancient  race  may  be  "in-bred"  with  a 
degree  of  impunity,  while  it  would  be  fatal  to  a  cross-bred,  which  not 
infrequently  become  almost  barren.  Wild  Nature  in-breeds  more  or  less, 
as  is  shown  by  certain  animals  or  birds  forming  into  groups,  flocks  or 
families ;  and  these  keep  themselves  as  such  intact  by  driving  away  all 
intruders,  while  the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  whole  is  kept  up  by  the 
strong,  for  at  least  the  time  being  the  masters,  in  turn.  Then  again,  the 
variation  of  locality  is,  in  my  belief,  one  of  the  necessities  of  natural  selec- 
tion, although  birds  drive  or  take  away  their  young  from  the  locality  in 
which  they  are  hatched.  This  is  done  so  that  by  being  reared  and 
upgrown  to  adolescence  on  another  soil  and  perhaps  food,  the  actual  consti- 
tution of  the  young  is  thereby  varied  and  strengthened ;  and  on  returning 
to  their  native  haunts  they  are  often  able  to  kill  either  one  or  the  other  of 
their  parents  (generally  the  male),  and  thus  form  an  alliance  with  the 
remaining,  if  any;  if  not,  then  with  themselves,  as  brothers  and  sisters. 

American  Views  Expressed 

There  is  such  a  difference  between  the  English  methods  in  the  use  of 
radical  out-crosses  or  foreign  crosses  to  revivify  an  old  strain  and  the 
American  system  of  preserving  the  thoroughbred,  that  in  our  case  it  is  hard 
to  reconcile  the  two  methods.  The  EngHsh  mode  of  introducing  foreign 
blood,  then  breeding  back  but  twice,  is  not  followed  here.  Many  x\merican 
breeders  believe  that  by  mating  two  famiHes  of  the  same  breed,  and  follow- 
ing Hne-breeding,  the  same  vigor  and  prepotency  can  be  obtained  and  far 
greater  uniformity  of  shape  and  purity  of  color  secured.  In  these  days 
of  advanced  poultry  culture  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  secure  paternal  and 
maternal  blood  from  strains  of  the  same  breed  of  sufficient  strength  and, 
I  beHeve,  better  influence  as  new  blood  to  strengthen  the  race.  Two  such, 
I  believe,  can  be  selected  as  an  original  pair  to  develop  a  new  strain,  while 
each  strain  thus  mated  may  be  preserved  in  all  its  vigor,  prepotency,  egg- 
production  and  beauty.  The  art  of  breeding  and  mating  is  to  so  mate  that 
while  we  have  the  care  to  preserve  shape  and  pure  color  we  should  not 
forget  the  productive  merits.  While  we  are  careful  not  to  admit  foreign 
blood,  we  should  be  absolutely  sure  that  our  matings  produced  their  chicks 
with  blood  of  different  proportions  to  the  blood  we  are  mating.     To  illus- 


42  The  Poultry  Book 

trate  our  system,  I  present  my  breeding-chart  with  explanations  how 
the  mating  does  present  a  different  proportion,  yet  showing  how  we  at  any 
season  can,  without  actual  in-and-in  breeding,  produce  half-bred  groups 
from  which  to  secure  revivifying  benefits  for  the  two  strains  represented 
in  our  original  or  first  mating.  Coupled  with  this,  we  ever  keep  in  mind 
that  selection  is  the  handmaid  of  line-breeding. 

Health  while  breeding  is  essential  for  the  hen.  The  most  active  with 
face  and  comb  are  good  points.  In  fact,  the  hen  in  the  best  health  at 
the  time  of  laying  will,  no  doubt,  give  us  our  best  chickens.  When  we 
start  with  a  pair  the  subsequent  generations  may  be  hens  of  3-5,  8-12  or 
15,  as  we  can  select  of  the  type  and  color  of  the  original  dam.  It  may  not 
matter  how  we  produce  the  half-blood  specimens,  whether  by  out-cross, 
as  in  the  English  systems,  or  by  the  science  of  breeding,  we  are  enabled  to 
secure  the  half-bloods  within  one's  own  flock.  I  prefer  the  latter  as  seen 
in  3,  7,  II,  16,  of  my  chart.  The  strength  to  our  strain  will  be  far  more 
uniform  in  its  effect  than  by  following  the  English  system.  To  illustrate, 
I  had  a  White  Wyandotte  hen  of  prime  color  and  shape  that  layed  perfect, 
dark-shelled  eggs,  weighing  28  ounces  per  dozen.  The  second  generation 
we  used  eight  daughters,  setting  none  but  eggs  that  approximated  the 
shape,  r'ze  and  color  of  the  original  dam.  The  third  season  thirty-six  of 
her  granddaughters  of  uniform  color  and  shape  and  uniform  dark-shell 
eggs  were  secured.  Atavism  comes  in  as  strongly  in  this  egg  production 
as  it  does  to  control  shape  and  color  in  the  fowls  themselves.  But  the 
male  must  be  hatched  from  eggs  of  a  kindred  color  or  there  will  be  a  vast 
difference  in  the  shade  of  color  in  the  egg-product  of  his  progeny. 

You  may  fail  to  see  the  meaning  of  the  solid  and  dotted  lines  of  the 
chart.  To  make  it  clear,  we  say,  each  dotted  line  represents  the  female 
as  having  been  selected  from  the  upper  group,  while  the  solid  line  shows 
the  male  as  having  been  taken  from  the  indicated  upper  group.  Each 
circle  represents  the  progeny.  To  wit :  female  No.  i  mated  with  male 
No.  2  have  produced  group  No.  3,  which  is  i^  the  blood  of  sire  and  dam. 
Females  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  their  own  sire  No.  2,  have  pro- 
duced group  No.  5,  which  is  3^  of  the  blood  of  the  sire.  No.  2,  and  j^  the 
blood  of  the  dam.  No.  i.  A  male  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  his 
own  dam.  No.  i,  produces  group  No.  4,  which  is  ^  of  the  blood  of  the  dam. 
No.  I,  and  ^  the  blood  of  the  sire.  No.  2. 

Again  we  select  a  cockerel  from  group   5   and   a  pullet  from  group 


Mating   and   Breeding 


43 


4,  or  vice  versa,  which  will  produce  group  7,  which  is  mathematically  half 
the  blood  of  each  of  the  original  pair,  No.  i  and  No.  2.  This  is  a  second 
step  tovv^ard  producing  a  new  strain.  Females  from  No.  5  mated  back  to 
the  original  male,  No.  2,  produce  group  8,  that  are  7^  the  blood  of  No.  2, 


felch's  breeding-chart 


and  a  cockerel  from  No.  4,  mated  back  to  the  original  dam,  No.  i,  pro- 
duces group  No.  6  that  is  J^  the  blood  of  the  original  dam  and  only  ys  the 
blood  of  the  original  sire.  Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  8  and  females 
from  No.  6  and  for  a  third  time  produce  chicks  (in  group  No.  11)  that  are 
half  the  blood  of  the  original  pair.  This  is  the  third  step  and  the  ninth 
mating  in  securing  complete  breeding  of  our  new  strain.  In  all  this  we 
have  not  broken  the  line  of  sires,  for  every  one  has  come  from  a  group  in 


44  The    Poultry    Book 

which  the  preponderance  of  blood  was  that  of  the  original  sire.  Nos.  2,  8, 
13  and  18  are  virtually  the  blood  of  No.  2. 

We  have  reached  a  point  where  we  would  estabHsh  a  male  hne  whose 
blood  is  virtually  that  of  our  original  dam,  and  we  now  select  from  No.  6 
a  male  which  we  mate  with  a  female  from  No.  4  and  produce  group  9, 
which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original  dam  No.  i  and  3-16  the  blood  of 
the  original  sire.  Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  9  and  a  female  of  the 
new  strain,  No.  11,  and  produce  group  14,  which  becomes  21-32  of  the 
blood  of  the  original  dam,  thus  preserving  her  strain  of  blood.  A  male 
from  No.  13,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire  No.  2,  mated  to 
females  from  No.  10,  which  are  5-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire,  No.  2, 
gives  us  group  17,  which  is  9-16  the  blood  of  said  sire.  While  in  No.  16 
we  have  the  new  strain  and  in  No.  18  the  strain  of  our  original  sire, 
No.  2,  we  have  three  distinct  strains,  and  by  and  with  this  systematic  use 
we  can  go  on  breeding  for  all  time  to  come.  Remember  that  each  dotted 
line  is  a  female  selection  and  each  soHd  line  the  male  selection. 

In  mating  to  secure  a  certain  proportion  of  male  blood  in  the  chicks, 
we  should  at  the  same  time  make  allowance  for  the  same  proportion  of 
female  blood.  Thus:  5  mated  to  8  gives  13-16  of  the  male  breeding,  and 
4  mated  to  6  gives  13-16  of  the  original  strain,  while  the  progeny  produced 
by  these  two  matings,  9  and  13,  if  they  were  mated  for  subsequent  use, 
becomes  one-half  the  blood  of  each  of  the  original  pair.  The  thing  to  ever 
keep  in  mind  is  that  this  middle  mating,  or  all  3,  7,  11,  16,  are  the  reservoirs 
of  blood  from  which  each  of  your  two  families  are  being  fed,  and  whose 
influence  is  so  strong  for  good  that  you  will  be  enabled,  so  long  as  you 
are  thus  careful  to  live  within  your  own  yards,  to  produce  unlimited 
numbers,  and  preserve  the  same  likeness,  vigor  and  productiveness 
you  started  with.  Then  how  important  is  it  that  we  in  our  first  selection 
make  sure  that  the  female  is  a  phenomenal  producer  both  as  to  number, 
size  and  shape  of  her  eggs,  that  she  be  of  good  size  and  as  near  standard 
shape  and  color  as  possible.  Barring  accidents,  such  should  be  our  selec- 
tion. Accidental  deformity  may  not  injure  the  breeding  of  a  male,  but 
often  does  that  of  the  female;  a  perfectly  formed  egg  being  quite  impor- 
tant in  our  estimation.  One  of  the  best  season's  get  of  young  stock  we 
ever  had  in  Brahmas  was  from  a  cockerel  that  had  a  very  crooked  back 
and  low  hip  on  one  side  by  accident.  But  had  a  p)ullet  been  so  unfortunate 
it  would  in  all  probability  have  caused  the  eggs  she  layed  to  be  ill-shaped. 


Mating   and    Breeding 


45 


Where  accidents  do  not  injure  the  perfect  shape  of  the  egg,  no  harm 
will  come.  Thus,  when  actual  necessity  demands  it,  we  may  use  an 
injured  fowl  with  profit,  should  it  recover  from  such  accident  strong  and 
in  good  health. 

All  breeders  acknowledge  that  the  male  controls  to  a  greater  degree 
the  shape  and  color;  while  constitution,  size  and  productiveness  is  the 
special  function  of  the  dam.     Yet  I  would  hesitate  to  mate  a  first-class 

female  with  a  male  I  knew 
nothing  about.  He  should  come 
from  a  first-class  producing 
female.  Mating  color  in  a 
general  way  gives  but  little 
understanding  to  what  it  does 
where  correctly 
chronicled  in 
connection 
w  i  t  h 
special 
breeds. 
The 
mating 
of  black 
breeds  de- 
mands special 
conditions  to  secure 
specific  results.  The  Langshans,  for  instance,  present  the  finest  con- 
ditions of  black  overlaid  with  a  green  sheen.  Yet  if  two  specimens 
possessing  this  phenomenal  sheen  are  mated  there  is  apt  to  come  with 
it  an  objectionable  bronze  bar  crossing  the  feathers.  Nothing  short  of  a 
deeply  shaded  walk  will  prevent  it.  Open  run  will  destroy  the 
purity.  But  a  male  with  this  high  condition  of  sheen  mated  to  females 
that  are  wanting  in  this  respect,  having  dull  shaded  black  breast,  lower 
body  and  tail,  will  give  chickens  having  little,  if  any,  of  this  faulty  barring. 
It  would  be  folly  to  use  a  male  of  this  dull  black  order.  Breeders  now  look 
beyond  the  surface  color.  The  second  year's  life  of  a  first-class  fowl  is 
considered  its  best  year  for  breeding.  It  is  folly  to  breed  from  unsound 
color ;  the  hen  must  have  reached  her  second  year  in  standard  color  or 


By  courtesy  o/ 


46  The   Poultry   Book 

reasonably  so;  otherwise  we  must  fall  back  upon  the  pullets  of  standard 
color,  no  matter  what  the  breed. 

As  an  instance  of  presumable  in-breeding,  Mr.  Weir  says  that  a  few 
years  ago  two  pairs  of  House  Martins  built  nests  under  the  eaves  of 
his  house.  They  were  unfortunate,  for  in  consequence  of  heav}^  rains 
one  pair  was  not  able  to  find  insects  for  its  young,  which  died  in  the  nest, 
when  the  old  birds  departed,  never  to  return ;  the  other  pair,  hatching 
somewhat  later,  reared  five  young  ones.  All  left  in  due  course  for  other 
climes.  Next  spring  the  old  birds  returned  with  four  others,  apparently 
the  young  of  the  former  year;  the  parents  occupied  their  previous  year's 
nest ;  the  other  two  pairs  built  two  nests,  laid  eggs,  and  hatched  and  reared 
their  young,  and  then  all  left.  One  thing  noticed  was,  that  if  any  other 
Martins  attempted  to  build  near  them,  they  were  driven  off  by  the  entire 
strength  of  the  colony.  Next  year  more  returned,  and  so  on  until  the 
colony  consisted  of  ten  nests ;  and  from  careful  observation  of  their  habits, 
etc.,  he  savs,  he  has  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  whole  number  of 
twenty  were  the  direct  descendants  of  the  first  pair,  and  yet  were  in  full 
vigor  and  health,  which  I  attribute  to  their  six-months'  (at  least)  change 
of  climate,  etc.  I  know  from  experience  that  change  of  locality  has  a 
great  eft'ect  on  Game-fowls;  and  that,  though  still  maintaining  their  health 
and  strength,  they  have  lost  their  valor,  and  have  become,  for  pit  purposes, 
useless  cravens.  The  Pigeon  is  another  bird  that  breeds  naturally  in-and-in, 
each  pair  laying  but  two  eggs,  and  the  young  are  male  and  female,  which 
afterward  pair;  and  it  is  thought  that  whole  flocks  are  thus  blood  relations. 

Our  wild  birds  generally  flock  the  progeny  of  vast  numbers  before 
they  migrate.  Thus  they  have  a  wide  chance  to  mate  in  a  suitable  manner. 
The  strongest  will  be  first  mated.  While  this  may  be  a  special  case  of 
straight  in-and-in  breeding,  I  think  it  better  not  be  applied  as  a  rule  for 
breeding  fowls.  Any  hunter  will  tell  you  there  is  quite  a  difference  in 
the  size  of  birds  of  the  same  species  shot  from  different  flocks.  To  return 
to  our  poultry,  Air.  Weir  says :  Where  the  variety  or  race  is  pure  and  true, 
it  may  and  should  be  in-bred.  If  colonies  of  poultry  can  be  established 
in  different  localities  some  distance  apart,  and  cocks  interchanged,  there 
need  be  no  fear  of  deterioration,  and  it  is  just  possible  that  the  whole 
strain  may  be  perfected  to  any  requirement  by  such  an  arrangement 

Such  pure  breeds  are,  in  my  opinion,  the  old  five-toed  Kent,  Sussex 
and  Surrey  fowds,  the  old  English  Game,  the  Black  Spanish  as  representing 


Mating  and   Breeding  47 

the  Mediterranean  breeds,  the  Malay,  the  Azeel,  the  PoUsh,  the  Ham- 
burgs,  the  Langshan,  and  some  few  others.  Take  any  of  these,  make 
them  into  a  strain,  and  they  will  breed  like-and-like,  and  with  dne  care 
each  will  develop  to  the  full  their  particular  attributes  and  qualities.  But 
if  any  or  either  of  them  are  crossed  one  with  the  other,  or  with  any  obscure 
mongrel,  then  continual  annoyance  and  disappointment  must  be  the 
inevitable  result. 

A  most  extraordinary  case  of  impregnation  is  related  by  the  late 
Mr.  Richard  Stamp,  the  celebrated  Game-cock  breeder,  etc.  He  states 
that  he  had  a  Game  hen  that  was  taken  away  from  the  cock  the  day  she 
laid  her  second  egg,  after  which  she  was  kept  by  herself.  She  laid  nine 
eggs  and  then  began  "clucking,"  then  sitting  and  hatching.  She  remained 
in  the  same  place  until  her  chickens  were  a  fortnight  old.  No  cock  or  any 
other  poultry  had  been  near  her  after  laying  her  second  egg.  "I  removed 
her  and  her  chicken,"  says  Mr.  Richard  Stamp,  "to  where  there  was 
no  other  variety  of  poultry,  in  a  plantation  walk;  they  remained  there 
until  she  commenced  to  lay  again,  I  not  knowing,  until  she  disappeared 
and  commenced  sitting.  When  I  found  her  and  her  nest  she  had  eleven 
eggs,  and  all  seemed  to  have  a  bird  in  them.  I  thought  she  had  mated 
to  pheasants,  but  when  the  chickens  were  hatched  they  were  all  Game, 
and  they  grew  up  thorough  Game.  By  this  it  would  appear  that  the  hen 
had  thus  carried  over  a  certain  amount  of  impregnation  from  the  first 
sitting."  He  concludes  by  saying  that  he  never  had  a  similar  experience 
with  any  other  hen.  Here  I  would  observe  that,  in  all  my  long  and  varied 
experience,  nothing  of  the  kind  has  ever  come  under  my  own  immediate 
notice.  On  the  contrary,  I  have  found  that  when  the  cock  has  been  removed 
from  the  hens  six  or  seven  weeks,  any  eggs  afterward  or  then  laid  have 
generally  proved  infertile.  Many  old  poultry  breeders,  however,  aver  that 
any  time  after  three  weeks  will  render  them  so ;  but  to  this  shorter  period 
I  do  not  assent. 

The  above  does  not  agree  with  my  experience.  I  have  found  all  incu- 
bating breeds  that  b}^  taking  the  hen  from  the  company  of  the  male  and 
isolating  her  I  could  never  hatch  an  egg  from  her  beyond  the  tenth.  I 
do  not  think  it  possible  for  a  hen  to  lay  a  fertile  egg  after  having  the  incu- 
bating fever  until  she  has  been  coupled  with  the  male.  I  have  even 
subjected  a  hen  while  having  the  fever  to  the  services  of  the  male,  then 
broke  her  up.     Not  an  egg  was  fertile  until  I  put  her  with  the  male  after 


48 


The    Poultry    Book 


she  had  recovered  from  her  wanting  to  set.  I  found  the  Leghorns  would 
carry  the  impregnation  a  few  days  longer.  But  in  all  breeds  where  the 
females  are  changed  from  one  harem  to  another,  and  when  hens  are  removed 
from  one  pen  to  that  of  another  cock's,  the  fourth  egg  will  usually  pro- 
duce the  progeny  of  the  new  male.  I  have  never  known  this  to  fail.  I 
see  no  other  reason  than  that  the  new  spermatozoa  are  more  active,  thus 
stronger,  and  overpower  the  older  and  weaker;  and  that  the  life  of  the 
spermatozoon  in  the  oviduct  is  limited  to  about  ten  days,  when  the  males 
are  removed.  The  fact  that  chickens  in  extreme  isolated  cases  in  a  five- 
toed  race  come  with  only  four  toes,  and  others  with  the  fifth  toe  very 
small  and  short,  cannot  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  taint  in  blood,  or  the 
effect  of  atavism ;  for  a  low  state  of  health  causes  this  lack  of  full  develop- 
ment of  the  Dorking  race.  Nor  can  the  plea  be  raised  m  these  days  that 
a  pullet  having  once  mated  with  a  male  not  of  her  breed  has  unfitted  her 
for  pure  breeding  afterward.  That  theory  of  Professor  Agassiz  has  long 
been  exploded  even  in  mammals.  To  apply  the  rule  to  fowls  falls  to 
the  ground.  The  thinking  mind  cannot  accept  the  inference  that  pullets 
can  thus  be  contaminated.  Were  it  a  fact,  there  would  be  exceedingly 
few  pure  strains  in  America  to-day. 

Speaking  of  improvement  by  crosses  with  other  blood.  Mr.  Weir  says : 
Of  late  years  much  has  been  said  as  to  the  making  of  new^  breeds,  and  when 

.  doing  so  there 
seems  to  be  no 
dearth  of  asser- 
tion as  to  these 
mongrels  possess- 
ing quaHties  far  in 
excess  of  any  of  the 
well-tested  and 
much-valued  true 
old  sorts.  There 
is  scarcely  a  prop- 
erty that  they  do 
not  possess.  But 
I  think  I  may  m.en- 
"'  tion    one   they  do 

E  INVALID  not   hold,   namely. 


Mating   and    Breeding  49 

that  of  breeding  like  and  like.  Of  course,  we  are  told  that  they  do ;  and 
some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that  they  breed  truer  than  the  old  in-bred 
or  close-bred  breeds.  My  answer  is,  buy  a  dozen,  and  let  them  be  chosen 
in  the  same  way  as  the  old  Kents  were — simply  for  health,  strength  and 
quality,  and  after  a  few  generations  the  variations  will  be  abundantly  clear. 
At  least,  this  is  my  own  and  some  of  my  friends'  experience.  They  are 
not  a  breed,  nor  do  they  produce  "like"  with  anything  of  the  certainty  as  do 
those  of  ancient  ancestry;  neither  is  there,  according  to  the  mating 
to  obtain  them,  generally  a  reasonable  chance  of  their  proving  something 
"very  superior." 

Take  as  an  instance  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  five-toed  fowls — fifty 
years  ago  said  by  all  that  knew  of  them  or  kept  them  to  be  the  ' '  best  fowls 
in  the  world."  They  have  been  crossed  with  the  Brahma,  the  Cochin 
and  the  Malay,  all  inferior  fowls  to  themselves,  and  yet  they  are  said  to  be 
improved.     How  can  this  be  ?     Adding  worse  to  good. 

A  mixture  of  blood  is  scarcely,  if  ever,  a  lasting  success,  but  a  certain 
pure  cross  for  table  or  laying  purposes  may  be  and  often  is  useful  and 
profitable  to  a  degree ;  but  these  never  surpass  an  old  and  pure  strain  bred 
to  the  qualities  required,  and  the  less  so  in  the  mixed  breeds,  by  the  variety 
of  form  and  color  of  individuals  in  the  same  breed. 

Take  as  an  example  the  old  pure -bred,  white-shanked,  five-toed  table 
fowls  that  in  themselves  possess  all  the  attributes  of  a  culinary  breed  of 
the  very  highest  class.  How  is  it  to  be  improved,  or  in  what  way  made 
better  ?  It  has  been  unwisely  advised  to  cross  it  with  the  Cornish  Indian. 
Where  is  the  gain  ?  The  Cornish  Indian,  a  cross  itself,  is  a  yellow-skinned, 
yellow-shanked  fowl,  and  does  not  fatten  on  the  breast  Hke  the  former;  the 
fiber  of  the  flesh  is  short,  close,  and  dry  by  comparison.  Therefore  you  get 
a  worse  fowl,  a  yellow-skinned  and  yellow-fatted  fowl,  and  one  that  makes 
more  internal  fat.  You  lose  by  this  cross.  Again,  matched  to  a  Cochin 
or  Shanghai,  the  chick  is  bigger  boned,  less  breast,  and  yellower,  coarser 
flesh.  Crossed  with  the  Brahma,  more  bone,  more  offal,  bigger  in  size,  but 
with  not  so  much  breast  meat,  nor  so  good  as  the  old  pure  breed,  and  in 
fact  a  worse  result  than  from  the  mixture  of  the  Cornish  Indian.  Even 
the  wonderful  grand-shaped  Azeel  hardens  the  flesh  and  spoils  the  fatting 
propensities  of  the  flrst.  As  Mr.  W.  B.  Tegetmeier  rightly  said,  now 
nearly  fifty  years  ago,  that  which  was  well-known  long  before  then,  "You 
cannot  improve  the  Dorking."     And  that  is  true,  for  the  sized  bird ;  but  if 


50  The    Poultry    Book 

a  less  is  wanted,  then  an  alliance  with  the  old  English  white-shanked  pit 
Game  will  leave  nothing  to  be  desired,  both  parents  being  of  the  highest 
class  for  table  purposes.     This  is  good  matching,  and  the  former  wrong. 

Before  "matching"  for  a  cross-breed,  the  first  thing  to  be  considered 
is,  where  will  be  the  gain  ?  If  you  have  a  perfect  breed  for  its  purpose  you 
only  injure  instead  of  benefiting  it  by  crossing,  yet  some  varieties  may  be 
so  treated  with  profit.  For  instance,  a  loose-feathered,  breastless  fowl, 
with  large  legs  and  thighs  and  generally  feathered  shanks,  fattens  very 
readily,  mostly  so  about  the  neck,  forepart  of  the  breast  and  back.  Then 
for  this,  an  Azeel  cock,  with  his  highly,  fully  developed,  close-grained, 
meaty  breast  would  make  a  most  desirable  cross,  if  a  new  style  of  fowl  is 
wished  for;  but  the  laying  properties  possessed  by  the  former  may  be 
seriously  damaged — you  cannot  have  both  flesh  and  eggs  from  the  sanle 
bird.  I  am  perfectly  well  aware  that  for  commercial  purposes  the  contrary 
has  been  asserted,  and  has  been  believed  by  the  thoughtless  and  credulous, 
but  never  by  the  experienced,  cultured  and  reflective  mind.  The  old 
English  white-shanked  pit  Game  may  be  matched  with  advantage  to  the 
Cochin,  the  Langshan  and  the  Brahma,  if  fowls  with  larger  frames  than 
ordinary  for  farmyard  purposes  are  in  demand ;  but  here  again  there  is  no 
absolute  gain,  for  if  some  of  the  progeny  equal,  none  will  surpass  the  old 
English  farmstead  five-toed  breed  pure  and  simple.  In  all  cases  of  match- 
ing, then,  bear  in  mind,  whether  it  is  the  stock  of  the  pure  breeds  or  cross- 
ings, the  full  and  persistent  purpose  should  be  to  obtain  birds  at  least  as 
good  as  the  parents,  but  better  if  possible.  And  very  few  mixtures  of 
form,  habit  and  breeds  of  poultry  lend  themselves  to  improve  that  which 
generations  of  the  most  carefully  organized  treatment  has  rendered  certain 
breeds  unsurpassed  for  whatever  special  purpose  was  considered  attainable. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  foregoing  is  from  the  English  stand- 
point, where  none  but  fowls  with  white  or  flesh-colored  shanks  and  what  is 
termed  white  skins  are  fully  appreciated  for  poultry  meat.  To  advocate 
such  for  the  American  market  would  be  disastrous  if  followed  by  the 
American  poultrymen,  for  the  very  reason  that  fowls  with  yellow  shanks 
and  skin  are  in  absolute  demand.  We  find  here  in  the  States  that  in  all 
the  competitions  the  progeny  of  the  White  Wyandotte  male  with  Brahma 
females  have  won  nearly  all  the  first  prizes.  But  when  a  little  larger 
carcass  was  wanted  the  cross  of  Indian  Game  with  the  Brahma  took  the 
lead.     For  broiler  purposes,  fowls  of  one  and  one-half  pounds  to  the  pair 


Mating  and    Breeding 


51 


.X    ^^ 


BACK    FROM    A    FORAGE 


dressed,  the  White  Wyandotte  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Hst,  with  the 
Indian  cross  next.  The  Brahma  chick  makes  a  broiler  of  four  pounds  to 
the  pair  in  eight  weeks,  producing  that  weight  four  weeks  eariier  than  will 
any  of  the  American  breeds,  thus  enabling  the  trader  to  produce  in  his 
plant  50  per  cent,  more  pounds  during  the  season.  This  practical  side  of 
poultry  culture,  it  will  be  seen,  is  controlled  solely  by  country  and  locality, 
in  the  consideration  of  which  the  breeder  must  use  his  individual  judgment. 
When  the  breeder  is  to  sacrifice  the  advantages  of  pure  breeding  for  kitchen 
uses  in  both  poultry  and  eggs,  as  in  this  case  of  the  Wyandotte  with  Brahma, 
not  only  does  he  produce  the  best  broilers  or  roasters,  but  a  larger  number 
of  eggs  per  individual  than  the  maternal  ancestors,  besides  preserving  in 
a  wonderful  manner  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  Brahma  egg.  This 
has  had  a  good  influence  on  Brahma  eggs  in  the  market  in  some  places 
over  other  breeds.     Thus,  the  reader  sees,  it  is  impossible  to  advocate  one 


52  The    Poultry    Book 

rule  to  govern  all  countries  in  this  respect.  There  is  no  doubt  for  egg- 
production  alone  the  White  Leghorn  as  a  breed,  or  its  male  mated  to 
Brahmas,  will  produce  the  largest  number  of  eggs  per  capita,  but  the  meat 
itself  is  of  less  value  and  excellence  than  those  mentioned  above.  In  these 
days,  when  the  thoroughbred  is  so  popular,  we  think  it  far  better  to  use 
the  pure  breeds  and  sacrifice  the  lower  half  for  kitchen  uses.  It  will  leave 
the  other  half  of  superior  quality.  At  the  late  Boston  exhibition,  single 
males  of  the  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  breed  sold  for  $300,  and  four  females  to 
make  up  the  pen  for  $200.  Sales  in  New  York  have  been  made  within 
three  years  at  $225;  Light  Brahma  males  $150;  eight  White  Wyandottes 
at  $500  and  single  males  as  high  as  $125  each;  ten  Partridge  Cochins  at 
$1,000;  $500  refused  for  ten  White  Leghorns.  AVith  this  array  of  facts  it 
seems  foolish  for  any  breeder  to  indulge  in  cross  breeding  when  he  can 
reach  all  necessary  points  of  excellence  with  the  pure  breeds  at  hand  and 
still  have  a  chance  to  reach  results  such  as  quoted  above. 

Effect  of  Food,   Soil  and  Shade 

It  behooves  the  breeder  to  exert  himself  in  every  possible  eftbrt  to 
furnish  every  condition  that  will  secure  a  beautifully  colored  flock.  Does 
the  partridge  ever  lay  her  eggs  above  a  stratum  of  frost,  or  does  she  lay 
in  spring  before  the  earth  is  warmed  so  that  worms  and  insects  come 
to  the  surface  in  her  feeding  haunts  ?  Does  she  molt  after  the 
harvest  is  past  ?  Does  she  seek  the  thick  shades  of  the  woods 
during  the  middle  of  the  day  and  the  open  fields  along  the  outskirts  of  the 
wood  during  the  early  morning  hours  ?  What  lesson  should  we  leani 
from  this  other  than  that  meat,  vegetables  and  grains  in  about  the  pro- 
portion of  fifteen  per  cent,  meat,  twenty-five  per  cent,  vegetables,  and 
sixty  per  cent,  grains  should  be  the  daily  food  of  our  flocks;  that  the 
chicks  should  be  hatched  with  the  early  grass  blades  with  tender  food  for 
them;  that  our  flock  should  be  furnished  shade  where  they  may  retire 
in  the  heat  of  the  day,  especially  during  the  molting  season.  When  flocks 
secure  their  adult  plumage  after  the  middle  of  September  in  New  England 
latitudes,  they  retain  to  the  largest  degree  pure  shades  of  their  color. 
Let  a  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel  secure  his  adult  plumage  in  July  and  a 
brother  in  October.  The  former  in  January  may  be  greatly  tarnished, 
while  the  latter  remains  bluish-gray  and  preserves  his  prime  color  through- 
out the  entire  season.     Soil  and  sun  have,  in  my  opinion,  far  more  to  do 


Mating   and    Breeding  53 

with  good  or  bad  color  than  any  other  two  things.  The  finest  colored 
Partridge  Cochins  I  ever  saw  were  raised  about  an  iron  foundry,  in  a  locality 
heavily  charged  with  iron  deposits.  These  conditions  will  affect  in  a  like 
manner  Golden  Hamburgs,  Golden  Wyandottes,  and  all  so-called  buff 
breeds ;  while  all  Whites  or  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  would  suffer  greatly 
under  such  conditions,  turning  the  Whites  to  a  yellow  shade  and  the 
Rocks  to  a  bronzed  discoloration  or  cause  the  bars  to  become  quite  black 
— all  detrimental  to  their  standard  demand.  The  breeder  of  strictly 
thoroughbred  fowls  will  do  well  to  profit  by  the  above  lesson  from  nature. 
Give  to  all  breeds  ample  shade  and  cool  quarters  in  summer.  They  can 
stand  dry  cold  weather  better  than  severe  heat ;  damp  cold  weather  is  a 
peculiar  hardship  for  them. 

For  the  game  breeders,  and  those  who  are  fascinated  by  the  mixing 
of  colors  in  animated  nature,  we  give  below  Mr.  Weir's  own  words:  Color 
is  much  influenced  by  climate,  food  and  locality,  some  places  producing 
deeper  or  lighter  tones  of  browns,  grays,  buffs,  etc.,  though  the  birds  may 
be  fed  in  exactly  the  same  way,  with  the  exception  of  the  herbage  they 
find,  the  insects,  and  the  soil  which  is  taken  into  the  system  in  the  form 
of  "grit."  And  also  there  are  other  causes,  such  as  water,  etc.  A  friend 
of  mine  sent  me  some  young  dark  Dorkings,  rich  and  pure  in  color,  and 
white  in  shanks  and  feet.  The  next  molt  with  me  they  showed  much 
white  in  their  plumage,  while  none  of  his  own  changed  a  feather  to  white ; 
the  third  season  of  molting  one  hen  became  quite  white,  I  gave  her  to  a 
lady  who  resides  in  Sussex,  where  the  soil  was  impregnated  with  iron. 
At  her  next  change  of  feathers  the  hen  became  nearly  her  former  dark  rich 
color,  with  only  a  few  white  splashes.  Nor  is  this  the  only  case  by  many 
that  has  come  under  my  observation.  An  old  Game-fowl  fancier,  living 
in  Cornwall,  showed  me  a  few  years  ago  a  flock  of  most  beautiful  black- 
breasted  blood-reds.  I  have  never  seen  better.  He  said  that  they  were 
the  stock  of  a  deceased  friend,  and  had  been  bred  by  him  for  many  years  in 
the  state  of  perfection  that  I  saw  them.  With  the  next  molt  nearly  every 
one  was  more  or  less  splashed  or  ticked  with  white,  which  became  on  his 
"walks"  so  persistent  that  he  changed  his  breed. 

I  call  attention  to  these  few  facts,  and  could  give  more,  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  that  it  is  not  always  food,  but  the  particular  soil,  etc.,  on  which 
the  fowls  range,  that  makes  a  considerable  dift'erence.  It  is  so  among  our 
wild  birds.     The  Red  Grouse  of  the  Yorkshire  moors  are  brown  beside 


54  The    Poultry    Book 

the  Scotch,  while  all  others  that  I  have  seen  look  dark  by  comparison 
with  the  bright  reds  of  those  on  the  island  of  Lewis.  The  late  Sir  Frederick 
Millbank  some  years  ago  sent  me  three  brace  to  testify  to  the  fact. 

But  apart  from  this  district  variation,  there  are  rules  for  mating  in  the 
producing  of  certain  tints,  coloring  and  markings ;  and,  as  is  daily  proved 
by  color  photography,  nearly  all  may  be  got  by  a  combination  of  three: 
namely  yellow,  blue  and  red.  Of  these  in  "feather"  breeding  the  yellow 
is  a  natural  color,  sometimes  found  on  animals  and  birds  in  a  wild  state, 
as  is  the  red  and  the  blue,  which  last  is  the  pallid  of  the  black,  with  the 
white  or  albino  also  found  under  similar  circumstances.  These  are  merely 
differentiations  from  the  normal  color,  and,  therefore,  by  the  fancier's 
art  are  capable  of  intermixture,  thus  producing  such  variations  as  he  may 
consider  beautiful  or  interesting.  Thus  you  match  a  white  cock  with  a 
black  hen,  and  if  the  colors  are  solid,  without  a  break  of  any  other,  the 
chances  are  in  favor  of  the  production  of  the  blue.  The  white  with  the 
light  buff  will  produce  a  primrose  color,  with  the  light  red  a  nankeen,  and 
if  with  normal  that  of  a  black-breasted  red,  sometimes  a  wheaten  of  light 
red  in  the  hens,  or  it  may  be  a  black,  for  white  and  black  are  nearly  the 
same  in  breeding  color.  An  East  Indian  drake  with  our  common  white 
ducks  will  often  produce  blacks ;  and  Mr.  Henry  Digby  informed  me  that 
he  got  the  larger-sized  Cayuga  ducks  from  a  drake  of  the  breed  mated 
with  the  modern  Aylesbury  duck.  The  normal  color  is  the  strongest  and 
most  assertive,  and  black  the  next ;  while  white  is  the  most  obtrusive,  as 
showing  a  weakness  or  lacking  of  color-pigment,  coming  as  it  does  in  old 
birds,  and  yet  from  the  young  of  these  scarcely  appearing  as  permanent 
until  at  least  the  second  molt. 

The  yellow,  light  fawn,  fawn,  or  what  in  natural  color  is  called  the 
Xanthus,  are  weak,  and,  applied  to  the  normal,  have  the  tendency  to  lighten 
yet  with  the  nankeen  giving  a  warmth  of  hue  and  tone  that  is  in  some 
particularly  pleasing,  while  the  light  gray  on  blue  cools  and  dulls,  as  may 
be  observed  in  the  blue-dun  Game-cock  (Kentucky  blue),  which  illustrates 
a  combination  of  the  buff,  light  red  and  blue. 

In  natural  or  original  coloring  of  the  black-breasted  red  cock  all  the 
long,  attenuated,  sharply  lanceolated  feathers,  such  as  the  hackles,  etc., 
are  of  the  brilliant  character,  filled  with  a  catching  iridescent  light  that 
sparkles,  comes,  goes,  and  flashes  in  the  sun ;  while  those  rounded,  full  and 
wide  are  invariably  black,  with  the  exception  of  the  primary  and  secondary 


Mating   and    Breeding 


55 


on  the  wing,  which  are  in  shape  different  from  the  hackles,  the  breast  or 
thigh  plumage.  This  being  so  makes  a  division  thus :  black-breasted  red, 
black-breasted  gold,  black-breasted  yellows,  silvers,  grays,  duns,  etc. — 
smock,  or  white-breasted  reds,  golds,  yellows,  grays,  duns  and  blacks ;  in 
each  of  these  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  colors  are  the  same,  the  only 
\rariants  being  the  hue  given  to  each,  and  these  may  be  intercrossed  with 
ever-varying  effects  and  beauty. 

These  would  be  to  a  degree  on  a  par  with  the  two-colored  tulip,  for 
before  the  other  breaks  this  often  ensues.  As  in  breeding  white  and  black 
are  the  same,  so  either  mated  with  the  primitive  colors  will  produce  either 
birds  mottled  with  white,  or  darkened  with  black  spots  or  lacings.  The 
first  is  the  true  spangle,  which  should  have  a  white  tip  to  the  feathers; 
and  the  second,  though  called  spangles,  is  not  rightfully  so.  The 
spangled  Game  is  the  self  or  original  color,  white  tipped,  similar 
to  what  was  called  speckles  in  the  old  five -toed  fowls  and  other  farm- 
yard breeds. 

A  black  cock  allied  to  a  partridge-colored  hen  will  often  produce  the 
superbly  brilliant  feathering  of  the  black-breasted  black  reds,  but  this  is 
not  always  so.  Birds  of  such  chromatic  shades  are  held  in  high  esteem, 
and  are  said  to  be  possessed  of  unusual  stamina.  All  the  others,  such 
as  turkey,  starHng,  blotched,  splashed  and  grizzle  breasts,  are  the 
foul-feathered,  not  bred  for 
varieties.  The  art  in  color- 
breeding  is  to  keep  each 
brilliant  glowing  and  distinct, 
each  in  its  defined  and  proper 
place,  with  the  edge  of  contact 
short,  clean  and  true. 

Just  a  few  more  words  as 
to  the  influence  of  the  male 
bird  in  cross- fertilization. 
They  are  taken  from  "  The 
North  British  Agriculturist," 
of  April  19,  1883:  "The  ex- 
periment was  that  of  Mr.  Lewis 
P.  Muirhead,  Helensburgh,  and 
was   intended   to   indicate  the 


Pliotoffrnpit  hy  C.  keid,  H'ishaw.  N.  B. 
COCHINS 


56  The    Poultry    Book 

time,  etc.,  that  it  would  take  to  obliterate  the  characteristics  of  the 
female  of  another  strain.  The  female  chosen  was  one  of  tw^o  La  Fleche 
hens  with  which  the  late  Mr.  Dring  some  years  since  w^on  many  prizes  in 
England,  the  type  of  comb  shaped  like  a  pair  of  horns,  white  earlobes 
(these  would  be  small),  and  white  egg  being  strongly  characteristic.  The 
males  w^ere  reared  from  eggs  laid  by  hens  imported  from  Langshan, 
north  China,  by  the  late  Major  Croad,  of  Worthington — upright  serrated 
comb,  black  eyes,  black-feathered  legs,  red  earlobes,  and  pink-buff  eyes, 
both  breeds  celebrated  for  their  sheeny  black  plumage. 

"First  Cross. — Hen,  Hamburg  in  type,  rose  comb,  white  earlobes, 
bare  legs,  amber  iris  to  eye,  egg  white. 

"Second  Cross. — Hen,  leggy  and  awkward  looking,  double  comb, 
lobes  white  and  patchy,  amber  of  eye  rather  darker,  egg  cream  color. 

"Third  Cross. — Hen,  Langshan  in  appearance,  comb  waxy,  eye 
darker,  egg  pale  buff. 

"Fourth  Cross. — Hen,  quite  Langshan,  full-bodied,  pink-toed,  feather- 
legged,  dark-eyed,  egg  buff. 

"Fifth  Cross. — Hen,  perfect  Langshan,  full-bodied,  pink-toed,  feather- 
legged,  black-eyed,  upright  comb,  red  earlobes,  egg  pink-buff';  the  chicks 
were  almost  black  in  the  first  and  second  cross ;  light  canary  color,  with  the 
black  velvet  jacket  of  the  Langshan  in  the  last  three. 

"The  gradual  alteration  of  the  color  of  the  egg  from  the  pure  white 
of  the  La  Fleche  to  the  curiously  characteristic  pink-buff  of  the  Langshan 
in  five  generations  is  worthy  of  note. 

"  What  I  am  now  coming  to  is  the  color  of  the  shanks.  The  strongest 
color  in  many  breeds,  and  the  most  difficult  to  out -breed  the  stain  of,  is  the 
yellow.  The  blue  is  greened  by  it,  and  the  white,  as  the  pure  soft-looking 
milky  white,  is  sooted  and  ruined.  A  cross  was  some  years  ago  made 
between  a  yellow-shanked  Game-cock  of  wonderful  color  and  two  gold- 
spangled  Hamburg  hens  to  give  more  brilliancy  to  their  golden  ground, 
but  failed  entirely,  for  the  reason  that  the  yellow  of  the  shanks  could  not 
be  eliminated.  It  was  so,  and  is  so  with  w^hat  is  universally  termed  Dorking 
improvement  crosses.  The  mongrelism  does  show,  and  will  show  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  a  lifetime  will  not  get  rid  of  it.  It  shows 
on  the  white  shank  and  foot  as  horny  in  tint,  then  sooty  more  or  less,  and 
often  when  supposed  to  be  bred  out  will,  when  put  to  a  pure  old  strain, 
come  out  again  in  all  its  glory  of  pure  yellow.     I  know  this ;  I  have  seen  it ; 


Mating   and    Breeding  57 

and  many  a  good  and  pure  strain  of  white-shanked  birds,  both  Game 
and  Dorking,  has  been  ruined  by  the  persistent  actions  of  those  ignorant 
of  the  probable  results.  It  is  far  better,  if  a  cross  is  necessary  with  or 
for  a  white-shanked  strain,  to  make  one  with  blue  or  slate  than  yellow. 
Yellow  is  the  very  worst  of  all ;  it  stains  and  tints  the  whole  body  and 
system  of  the  bird,  while  the  first  does  not ;  both  are  difficult  to  breed  out, 
but  the  yellow  is  the  most  persistent,  and  where  firm  white  flesh,  fat,  skin 
and  shanks  are  the  points  of  excellence,  it  is  grossly  pernicious,  and  utterly 
to  be  avoided." 

In  the  above  statements  of  J\Ir.  Weir  it  is  understood  that  he  continu- 
ally refers  to  foreign  or  crosses  out  of  the  breeds  named,  but  cHmate  has  a 
great  influence.  It  has  to  be  admitted  that  the  yellow  skin  and  scales  do 
constantly  appear  in  shanks  of  breeds  described  as  otherwise.  So  preva- 
lent is  it  in  Langshans  that  the  judges  in  our  exhibitions  first  take  a  look 
at  the  bottom  of  the  feet  to  see  if  the  specimen  is  not  disqualified  for  that 
cause.  It  seems  to  be  the  first  and  strongest  ancestral  control ;  and  that  soil 
and  feed  all  tend  to  introduce  this  taint  to  all  black-  and  white-shanked 
breeds.  Notwithstanding  atavism  is  so  strong  in  nature,  yet  man  can  and 
does  control  in  a  wonderful  degree  by  forcing  the  matings,  and  secures 
results  gratifying  to  behold.  The  breeder  who  knows  nothing  of  the 
ancestry  of  the  fowls  he  mates  may  fail.  But  when  our  stock  has  been 
carefully  bred  for  a  succession  of  years  it  furnishes  the  keynote  to  all  science 
in  breeding.  We  can  do  no  better  than  to  search  out  the  individual 
specimen  possessing  the  traits  we  covet,  breed  them  in  line,  thus  intensify- 
ing their  transmission  in  our  flocks.  It  is  thus  only  that  we  secure  and 
raise  types  recognized  as  strains.  It  is  the  control  of  these  ancestral 
influences  by  man's  intelligence  that  gives  us  the  results  so  infinitely  better 
than  we  see  in  natural  selection  and  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  It  is  not 
strange  that  man  works  out  these  higher  types  of  animals.  Not  even  do 
our  flocks  escape  the  inspiration,  and  new  breeds  come  to  the  surface. 

"  There  is  a  history  in  all  men's  lives, 
Figuring  the  nature  of  the  times  deceased; 
The  which  observed,  a  man  may  prophesy, 
With  a  near  aim,  of  the  main  chance  of  things 
As  yet  not  come  to  life;  vhich  in  their  seeds 
And  weak  beginnings  lie  treasured.  " — Shakespeare. — 2  Henry  IV. 


EGGS   FROM  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  GENERAL  POINT  OF  VIEW 

Miller  Purvis,   Illinois 

"  Man  shall  rise  at  the  cro\Y  of  a  cock." — Jeremiah. 


GGS  no  doubt  have  been  an  important  article  of  diet   from 

the   eariiest   ages.     The  wild  jungle-fowl  of  India  {G alius 

bankiva)  was  domesticated  long  before  history  begins,  and 

the  most  ancient  writings  mention  it.      It  is  mentioned  in 

the  Institutes  of  Manu,  and  Babylonian  cylinders  have  been 

found  with  the  impressions  of  domesticated  fowls  on  them. 

Ever  since  history  began  poultry  has  been  mentioned  by  historians,  and 

none  of  them  has  mentioned  it  as  a  newly  acquired  part  of  the  established 

order  of  things. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Aryan  invasion  of  Europe  marks  the  beginning 
of  poultry  culture  in  the  west,  and  since  that  time  almost  constant  im- 
provement has  been  made. 

Even  in  the  depths  of  Africa  the  first  explorers  were  offered  or  were 
able  to  purchase  in  the  rude  market-places  of  that  dark  continent  both 
eggs  and  poultry. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  have  been  expert  poultry  breeders  for  many 
centuries,  and  the  large-sized  fowls  and  ducks  of  China  and  the  long-tailed 
fowls  of  Japan  are  examples  of  the  skill  of  these  Oriental  people  in  molding 
and  shaping  the  fowls  they  breed  to  suit  their  fancy. 

The  Black  Langshan  and  the  Pekin  duck  are  examples  of  the  skill  of 
the  Chinese  in  this  direction,  and  these  breeds  are  to-day  practically  as 
they  were  when  first  imported  from  China. 

Eggs  have  had  a  place  in  the  religious  observances  of  both  pagan  and 
Christian  nations  for  centuries.  The  heathen  oft'ers  them  as  an  acceptable 
sacrifice  to  his  gods,  and  the  Christian  makes  them  so  much  a  part  of  his 
festival  of  Easter  that  the  markets  of  the  w^orld  feel  the  effect  of  the 
increased  demand  at  that  season. 

The  Christian  festival  of  Easter  is  an  old  Pagan  festival  engrafted  on 
the  observances  of  the  Christian  Church.     The  early  fathers  found  the 

59 


6o  The    Poultry    Book 

pagans  of  Europe  celebrating  a  festival  at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox 
in  which  eggs  were  used  in  quantities.  It  was  not  a  violent  change  to 
transform  this  celebration  of  the  return  of  spring  into  one  in  memory  of 
the  Resurrection.  The  egg  was  held  as  the  symbol  of  the  return  to  Hfe  of 
that  which  had  died ;  the  pagans  celebrated  the  revival  of  vegetation,  and 
the  Christians  changed  this  into  a  symbol  of  a  new  life  for  the  soul  of  man. 

It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  there  seems  to  be  some  connection 
between  the  religious  observances  of  a  people  and  the  type  of  the  poultry 
bred  by  that  people.  The  Oriental  uses  fowls  as  sacrifices,  and  breeds  his 
fowls  to  large  size,  as  witness  the  Asiatic  breeds.  The  Christian  of  Europe 
uses  eggs  in  quantity  at  Eastertide,  and  his  ancestors  used  them  in  his  vernal 
festivities,  and  the  fowls  of  Europe  are  noted  for  their  prolificacy.  The 
Malay  delights  in  cock-fighting,  and  his  fowls  are  the  strongest  and  most 
fierce  of  all  the  family,  fighting  to  the  last  gasp  with  indomitable  courage. 

The  egg  is  a  good  example  of  how  nature  adapts  itself  to  environment 
and  conditions.  Lay  an  egg  on  a  plane  surface  and  it  revolves  on  its  own 
axis,  having  a  tendency  to  occupy  the  same  place.  This  is  on  account  of 
its  peculiar  shape,  being  pointed  at  one  end  and  turning  around  without  pro- 
gressing. This  pointed  shape  also  serves  to  keep  the  larger  end  the  highest 
when  it  lies  in  a  bowl-shaped  nest,  a  position  that  is  necessary  during  the 
process  of  incubation,  as  the  head  of  the  embryo  is  always  toward  the 
larger  end  and  needs  to  be  kept  higher  than  the  remainder  of  its  body. 

The  shape  of  eggs  is  also  the  one  that  is  best  calculated  to  resist 
attacks  from  without.  The  shell  is  composed  of  a  very  fragile  material, 
and  it  is  so  shaped  that  it  resists  considerable  pressure  from  without, 
yet  at  the  same  time  is  easily  broken  by  the  chick  that,  having  arrived  at 
the  end  of  the  period  of  incubation,  must  break  its  own  way  to  the  outer 
world. 

Comniercially,  eggs  have  become  an  important  factor  in  the  business 
of  the  world.  Millions  of  dollars  are  invested  in  the  traffic  in  them,  and 
immense  buildings  have  been  erected  in  which  they  are  kept  in  cold 
storage  from  the  season  of  greatest  plenty  to  the  season  when  they  are 
scarcest.  They  are  of  great  importance  in  the  arts;  and  from  furnishing 
the  albumen  w4th  which  photographic  paper  is  coated,  to  being  used  in  the 
making  of  fine  leathers,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  doz^s  are  used. 

Besides  being  held  in  cold  storage  from  one  season  to  another,  they 
are  prepared  in  various  ways  for  export  to  far-oft'  countries.     Large  fac- 


The   Commercial    Egg 


6i 


tories  are  required  to  produce  desiccated  or  dried  eggs  for  the  export 
trade,  and  thousands  of  dozens  are  canned,  frozen,  and  thus  transported 
to  distant  lands. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  there  is  a  large  trade  in  the  eggs  of  wild 
fowls,  and  at  one  time  egg-hunting  on  the  Farallone  Islands,  off  the  coast 
of  California,   was  quite  an  important  industry.     On  the  east  coast  of 


SILVER-SPANGLED    HAMBURGS 


Photograph  by  C.  Reid.  IVt 


Virginia  the  eggs  of  gulls  are  often  eaten,  and  on  the  coast  of  Texas  a  few 
years  ago  there  was  a  considerable  trade  in  heron  eggs. 

As  a  rule,  however,  when  we  speak  of  eggs  we  mean  hens'  eggs,  although 
the  eggs  of  ducks  are  of  considerable  commercial  importance,  and  those  of 
geese  and  turkeys  are  quite  often  included  as  articles  of  diet — those  of 
turkeys  rarely,  as  they  are  considered  too  valuable  for  hatching  to  be  eaten. 

Eggs  of  the  different  breeds  of  fowls  vary  considerably  in  size.  The 
egg  of  the  diminutive  bantam  weighs  about  fourteen  ounces  to  the  dozen, 
while  the  eggs  of  the  Langshan  hen  or  the  stately  and  aristocratic  Minorca 
or  Andalusian  often  weigh  in  excess  of  thirty  ounces  to  the  dozen.     The 


62  The   Poultry  Book 

average  \Yeight  of  hens'  eggs  •  '  v'(^'\ty-four  ounces  to  the  dozen,  or  eight 
to  the  pound. 

It  is  usual  to  make  no  distinction  in  the  market  between  the  small, 
the  average  and  the  large  eggs,  which  is  a  manifest  injustice  to  the  seller 
of  large  eggs.  The  only  just  way  to  deal  in  eggs  would  be  by  weight. 
While  this  is  almost  universally  conceded  to  be  the  case,  so  strong  is  the 
custom  of  buving  and  selling  by  count  that,  so  far  as  we  know,  there  is  no 
market  in  the  w^orld  where  eggs  are  sold  by  weight. 

The  average  hen's  egg  is  2.27  inches  in  length  and  1.72  inches  in  diam- 
eter at  the  largest  place,  and  weighs  about  two  ounces.  The  eggs  of  pullets 
are  almost  invariably  smaller  than  those  of  hens  more  than  one  year  old. 

Duck  eggs  are  considerably  larger  than  those  of  hens  and  usually 
command  a  higher  price.  Guinea  eggs  are  very  pointed  and  considerably 
smaller  than  hens'  eggs.  Goose  eggs  weigh  from  5.5  to  6.7  ounces,  or  about 
five  pounds  to  the  dozen. 

The  average  hen's  egg  is  composed  of  about  11  per  cent,  of  shell,  32 
per  cent,  of  yolk  and  57  per  cent,  of  white.  Some  experiments  at  the  New 
York  State  experiment  station  indicated  that  the  shells  of  white-shelled 
eggs  are  slightly  heavier  than  those  of  brown-shelled  eggs. 

It  is  because  the  general  public  has  become  convinced  of  the  nutriti\-e 
value  of  eggs  that  they  ha\'e  assumed  their  present  important  position 
commercially. 

While  they  have  long  been  considered  wdiat  is  commonly  called 
"strong"  food,  they  have  been  looked  upon  as  more  of  a  luxury  than  a 
necessity,  and  the  poorer  people  preferred  to  buy  meats  rather  than  eggs, 
as  a  matter  of  economy. 

A  curious  error  exists  in  some  markets  concerning  the  quality  of  eggs 
as  indicated  by  the  color  of  their  shehs.  The  people  of  Boston  prefer  eggs 
with  dark  shells  and  will  pay  the  highest  price  for  them,  while  the  people 
of  New  York  City  prefer  white-shelled  eggs,  and  the  highest  priced  eggs 
in  that  citv  are  those  having  white  shells.  In  Chicago  there  is  no  choice 
in  the  matter  of  the  color  of  the  shells,  but  it  has  been  observed  by  those 
who  cater  to  the  high-priced  trade  that  it  is  advisable  to  assort  the  eggs 
according  to  color  and  sell  them  in  evenly  colored  lots. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  a  series  of  careful 
analyses  that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  food  value  of  eggs  with  different 
colored  shells. 


HENNY    COCK    AND    HEN 
The  property  of  Mr.  John  Harris,  of  Liskeard. 


The   Commercial   Egg  65 

Eggs  have  been  articles  of  trade  ever  since  this  cotintry  was  settled, 
but  until  quite  recently  they  were  not  considered  of  great  importance. 
The  production  of  eggs  was  left  entirely  to  farmers,  and  by  them  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  and  poultry  was  not  considered  of  great  importance.  As  a 
rule,  ever>^  farm  supported  a  flock  of  mongrel  fowls  which  were  allowed  to 
live  by  picking  up  stray  grains  about  the  farm  and  in  the  hog  lots,  and  by 
foraging  about  the  fields  for  insects,  seeds  and  other  food  such  as  they 
could  find.  But  little  attention  was  paid  to  feeding  them,  and  less  to 
providing  a  place  where  they  might  sleep  in  comfort  through  the  winter. 
Frequently  no  shelter  whatever  was  provided  for  the  fowls,  they  being 
compelled  to  seek  out  their  own  resting-places  in  outbuildings  or  in  the 
trees  about  the  farmstead. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  stimulate  egg  production,  and  such  a  thing 
as  feeding  for  eggs  was  unheard  of.  It  was  .the  common  belief  that  poultry 
did  not  pay  for  the  damage  it  did  to  gardens  and  field  crops;  and  the  farm 
flock  was  allowed  to  exist  as  a  somewhat  necessary  nuisance  to  furnish 
material  to  be  used  in  cakes,  puddings  and  other  rural  dainties,  rather  than 
with  a  view  to  revenue. 

As  a  result  of  this  lack  of  method  and  almost  absolute  neglect,  eggs 
were  not  expected  in  winter,  and  were  always  scarce  at  that  time  in  the 
year,  while  their  plentifulness  in  summer  made  them  so  cheap  that  fre- 
quently they  could  not  be  sold  except  in  the  way  of  bartering  them  for 
goods  at  local  stores.  From  three  to  six  cents  a  dozen  was  the  usual  price 
in  summer,  and  as  there  were  none  to  be  had  at  any  price  in  the  winter,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  poultry  was  held  in  low  esteem. 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  some  ships  trading  with  the 
East  Indies  took  on  some  very  large  fowls  as  a  part  of  their  food  stores. 
Some  of  these  had  not  been  eaten  when  the  ships  arrived  in  port,  and  they 
were  given  to  relatives  of  the  captains  of  the  ships,  and  at  once  created 
a  sensation  on  account  of  their  immense  size.  The  fame  of  the  great 
fowls  from  the  Orient  began  to  spread,  and  soon  there  was  considerable 
excitement  concerning  them.  Stories  were  told  of  fowls  so  large  and  tall 
that  they  could  eat  com  from  the  head  of  a  flour  barrel  while  they  were 
standing  on  the  ground,  and  every  one  became  anxious  to  secure  some  of 
the  large  fowls. 

This  led  to  the  importation  of  other  fowls  from  the  Far  East,  and  the 
pouhry  industry  received  its  first  impulse,  an  impulse  that  was  destined 


66  The   Poultry    Book 

to  produce  great  results  and  effect  a  revolution  in  the  business  of  pro- 
ducing poultry  and  eggs. 

The  first  importations  from  Asiatic  countries  were  tall,  loose-jointed, 
awkward,  ungainly  fowls  of  various  colors.  Some  were  reddish  yellow, 
others  were  grayish  white,  and  others  a  mixture  of  almost  every  color 
known  to  the  gallinaceous  family. 

They  were  known  by  various  names,  such  as  Shanghais,  Brahma- 
Pootras,  Chittagongs,  etc.  A  few  enthusiasts  began  to  breed  these  various 
fowls  with  a  view  to  producing  a  degree  of  uniformity,  and  the  result  was 
the  evolution  of  several  distinct  breeds  which  are  to-day  known  as  Brahmas 
and  Cochins,  both  of  which  breeds  come  in  more  than  one  variety.  Later, 
Major  Croad,  of  the  British  army,  sent  to  England  a  distinct  breed  which 
he  found  in  northern  China,  naming  them,  from  the  Chinese  province 
from  which  they  came,  Langshans.  These  were  afterward  imported  to 
this  country,  and  since  that  time  other  importations  of  this  breed  have 
been  made.  The  Langshans  were  practically  perfected  when  first  imported, 
and  are  now  bred  to  models  based  on  the  original  form  and  color. 

This  first  beginning  of  the  interest  in  pure-bred  poultr}^  was  no  doubt 
the  foundation  of  the  present  great  poultry  industry  of  this  country. 
Marvelous  stories  were  told  of  their  prolificacy,  and  the  anxiety  of 
the  people  to  procure  specimens  caused  them  to  sell  for  very  high  prices. 

Several  years  before  the  first  importation  of  fowls  from  India  and 
China,  there  had  been  importations  from  Leghorn,  Italy,  but  these  had 
not  attracted  much  attention.  About  this  time  more  Italian  fowls  were 
brought  over,  and  it  was  claimed  for  them  that  the  hens  would  produce 
200  eggs  per  year,  and  stories  were  told  of  specimens  which  had  laid  so 
many  eggs  that  they  died  of  exhaustion. 

The  history  of  the  introduction  of  these  foreign  fowls  is  rather  hard 
to  unravel  on  account  of  conflict  of  authority,  but  the  general  facts  are  a 
matter  of  common  agreement  among  those  who  were  living  at  the  time. 

Just  when  it  seemed  that  the  whole  people  were  about  to  become 
interested  in  poultry  and  the  production  of  eggs,  the  Civil  War  began, 
and  for  the  next  five  years  the  people  of  the  nation  were  so  deeply  engrossed 
in  military  affairs  that  the  poultry  industry  was  allowed  to  sink  out  of 
sight,  so  far  as  the  general  public  was  concerned,  although  a  few  enthusi- 
asts maintained  an  interest  in  the  subject. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  the  war  poultry  breeding  again  became  a  matter 


The   Commercial    Egg 


67 


of  general  interest,  and  beginning  about  1870  the  interest  grew  apace.  The 
fowls  imported  from  foreign  countries  had  been  selected,  mated  and  bred 
until  several  distinct  breeds  had  been  perfected,  and  American  breeders 
began  to  introduce  new  breeds  derived  from  crossing  and  intermingHng 
the  blood  of  several  of  the  older  breeds. 

Pure-bred  fowls  were  imported  and  exported,  and  we  began  to  hear 
of   "fancy"   poultry,   as  distinguished  from  the  common  stock  of    the 


Photograph  by  Charles  Keid,  It'isha 
SILVER    WYANDOTTE    HEX    AXD    EGGS 


country.  Poultry  journals  were  established,  and  the  trade  in  poultry  for 
breeding  purposes  and  eggs  from  pure-bred  poultry  began  to  assume 
considerable  proportions. 

From  that  time  down  to  the  present  the  traffic  in  eggs  has  steadily 
increased  in  volume,  and  now  eggs  for  hatching  probably  represent  as 
large  a  volume  of  business  as  the  entire  trade  in  them  did  fifty  years  ago, 
while  the  transactions  in  eggs  for  food  and  other  commercial  purposes 
represent  milHons  of  dollars. 

Formerly  it  was  necessary  to  make  some  final  disposition  of  eggs 


68  The    Poultry    Book 

within  a  comparatively  short  time  after  they  were  gathered,  or  they  would 
become  unfit  for  any  use  except  for  a  few  processes  in  the  arts.  This 
made  it  necessary  to  handle  them  rapidly  and  get  them  into  the  hands 
of  consumers  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Later  the  lime-water  process  of  preserving  or  "pickling"  them  was 
discovered,  and  merchants  and  speculators  bought  large  numbers  of  them 
when  they  were  cheap  and  preserved  them  in  great  vats,  in  cellars,  until  the 
time  of  scarcity,  when  they  were  brought  out  and  sold  at  an  advance  on 
the  purchase  price. 

This  method  of  keeping  them  was  never  entirely  satisfactory,  as  the 
eggs  deteriorated  in  quality  to  a  marked  degree,  and  pickled  eggs  were 
only  used  because  fresh-laid  ones  could  not  be  had. 

Still  later  cold  storage  was  devised,  and  as  the  processes  by  which  a 
low  temperature  could  be  maintained  for  an  indefinite  period  were  improved 
more  and  more,  eggs  were  put  in  storage  in  the  summer  when  they  were 
cheap  to  be  held  until  winter  when  they  were  high  priced,  until  now  the 
business  of  putting  eggs  in  cold  storage  is  a  very  large  one.  Great  cold- 
storage  warehouses  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  large  cities  and  many  snialler 
ones  in  small  cities  and  towns,  and  the  business  has  assum.ed  such 
proportions  that  it  aft'ects  the  market  price  of  eggs  both  summer  and  winter. 

In  summer  the  cold-storage  speculators  bid  against  each  other  for  stock 
to  store  until  their  demand  increases  the  price.  In  winter,  as  soon  as  fresh- 
laid  eggs  become  scarce  and  the  consumptive  demand  raises  the  price,  the 
cold-storage  speculators  withdraw  their  stocks  from  storage  and  put  them 
on  the  market. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  effect  of  the  placing  of  eggs  in  cold  storage 
is  to  make  the  price  more  uniform  during  the  whole  year  than  it  was  before 
such  methods  were  practised. 

Eggs  are  bought  in  April,  usually,  for  cold  storage,  and  kept  in  store 
until  at  such  a  time  in  winter  as  the  price  yields  the  holder  a  satisfactoiy 
profit. 

It  is  not  always  a  money-making  transaction  to  store  eggs  in  this 
way.  Frequently  the  speculators  bid  the  price  for  storage  stock  up  to  a 
figure  that  makes  it  impossible  to  sell  at  a  profit.  This  is  especially  true 
if  the  winter  should  be  a  mild  one  and  eggs  should  come  in  with  any  degree 
of  regularity  during  the  cold  months. 

\Yith   the   present   transportation   facilities   it   is   a    matter   of   small 


The   Commercial    Egg  69 

moment  to  transport  eggs  from  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country  to  the 
colder  ones,  and  if  those  who  live  in  the  southern  States  would  take  advan- 
tage of  the  favorable  climatic  conditions  that  prevail  in  those  States,  and 
make  a  special  effort  for  the  production  of  eggs  in  large  numbers,  it  would  be 
a  hard  blow  at  the  cold  storage  of  eggs  in  the  North. 

The  processes  by  which  a  case  of  eggs  is  gathered  up  in  the  country, 
sent  to  the  city,  placed  in  cold  storage  and  finally  disposed  of  is  quite 
interesting. 

Usually  the  eggs  are  gathered  on  the  farms  of  the  country  and  sold 
for  cash  or  bartered  for  trade  at  the  stores  in  the  nearest  town.  Here  they 
are  packed  in  cases  holding  thirty  dozen  each  and  sent  to  the  commission 
merchant  in  the  city.  The  commission  merchant  sells  them  to  the  cold- 
storage  speculator  if  a  favorable  price  is  offered.  If  the  speculator  does 
not  offer  enough  for  them,  they  are  sold  for  immediate  consumption. 

Before  going  into  cold  storage  they  are  sorted,  as  only  perfectly  good 
eggs  are  stored,  and  much  care  must  be  exercised  in  sorting,  as  a  single 
broken  egg  if  stored  may  be  the  means  of  spoiling  several  others  that  lie 
next  to  it  in  the  case. 

Candling  eggs  is  a  trade  by  itself,  and  in  the  large  cities  is  done  by  a 
well-organized  union  or  guild  of  experts,  wdio  command  good  wages,  as  it 
takes  considerable  practice  to  become  an  expert  candler. 

The  term  ' '  candling ' '  is  used  from  the  fact  that  sorting  was  formerly 
done  by  the  light  of  a  candle.  Now  electric  lights  are  used,  and  it  is  much 
easier  to  select  the  good  eggs  than  in  was  when  a  less  brilliant  light  was  used. 

The  candlers  stand  in  a  row  facing  a  long  bench  or  table  in  a  hall  that 
is  perfectly  dark,  except  where  a  ray  of  electric  light  shines  through  a  small 
aperture  in  the  opaque  shade  that  covers  the  bulb.  Attendants  bring  the 
eggs  to  the  candlers  and  take  them  away  after  they  are  candled  and 
assorted. 

A  case  containing  thirty  dozen  eggs  is  placed  on  the  table  in  front  of 
the  candler,  convenient  to  his  left  hand.  From  this  he  picks  up  six  eggs, 
three  in  each  hand,  and  by  a  peculiar  twisting  motion  of  his  fingers  rapidly 
revolves  each  egg  before  the  aperture  in  the  light-shield,  thus  bringing  the 
egg  between  his  eye  and  the  light.  The  light  shining  through  the  egg  shows 
him  at  a  glance  what  classification  it  deserves. 

If  the  light  shows  evenly  in  all  parts  of  the  egg-shell  it  is  called  "fancy  "  ; 
if  there  is  a  faint  tinge  anywhere  in  it  it  is  called  ' '  strictly  fresh  " ;  a  more 


70  The    Poultry    Book 

pronounced  discoloration  places  it  in  the  class  of  "fresh  eggs."  Either  of 
these  classes  are  perfectly  sound  and  wholesome  and  fit  for  human  con- 
sumption, the  slight  discoloration  in  "strictly  fresh"  and  "fresh"  eggs 
being  the  result  of  age  that  allows  the  yolks  to  settle  to  one  side  slightly. 
Any  of  these  three  classes  may  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  an  indefinite 
time,  under  proper  conditions. 

If  the  candler  sees  a  decided  dark  spot  through  the  egg  as  he  examines 
it  he  calls  it  a  "  second,"  and  if  this  spot  is  quite  dark  it  is  called  a  "  spot." 
In  a  more  pronounced  condition  of  decay  it  becomes  a  "rot." 

Seconds  and  spots  are  sold  to  the  cheaper  trade,  as  they  have  not  yet 
got  so  far  along  as  to  be  detrimental  to  the  health,  and  a  certain  kind  of 
cheap  trade  disposes  of  them.  Seconds,  it  is  said,  are  frequently  sold  to 
bakers,  a  statement  that  we  have  never  cared  to  attempt  to  disprove. 

Broken  eggs  are  revealed  to  the  candler  as  he  gently  knocks  the  eggs 
together,  his  quick  sense  of  hearing  revealing  this  condition.  As  he  dis- 
covers the  condition  of  the  eggs  they  are  placed  in  different  receptacles, 
each  classification  by  itself.  These  candlers  work  with  remarkable  rapidity 
and  make  their  decisions  without  hesitation. 

A  machine  has  been  devised  to  do  this  work,  but  it  has  never  come 
into  common  use.  In  this  machine  the  lights  are  under  a  rolling  platform 
which  carries  the  eggs  along,  the  candler  standing  beside  the  platform  and 
selecting  and  assorting  the  eggs  as  they  pass  him.  Those  that  are  not 
"fancy"  or  "strictly  fresh"  are  picked  off  the  platform,  while  those  that 
are  allowed  to  remain  are  carried  along  and  deposited  in  a  receptacle  at 
the  end. 

After  the  eggs  are  assorted,  those  with  the  cracked  shells  are  broken 
by  girls,  who  separate  the  whites  from  the  yolks,  placing  each  in  tin  cans. 
When  a  can  is  full  of  either  whites  or  yolks  it  is  taken  to  the  freezing-room 
and  frozen,  to  remain  in  that  condition  until  sold.  In  some  cases  the 
whole  contents  of  the  egg-shell  are  canned  in  this  way,  frozen  and  shipped 
out  of  the  country,  large  numbers  of  canned  eggs  being  sent  to  Alaska 
every  year  since  the  gold  mines  were  discovered  in  that  territory. 

Even  the  shells  of  the  eggs  that  are  broken  for  canning  are  saved  and 
used  for  \-arious  purposes,  such  as  one  of  the  ingredients  of  poultry  foods. 

The  eggs  that  are  to  be  stored  are  placed  in  rooms  kept  cool  by  various 
processes,  usually  by  one  similar  to  the  one  by  which  artificial  ice  is  frozen, 
and  kept  at  a  low  temperature,   a   degree  or  two  abo\'e  freezing.     The 


The    Commercial    Egg 


71 


FOWLS    SCRATCHING   BEFORE    THE    BARN    DOOR 


management  of  a  building  in  which  eggs  ax'e  stored  requires  nice  manipulat- 
ing. The  temperature  must  be  kept  even,  and  the  degree  of  moisture  in 
the  air  regulated  to  a  nicety.  If  there  is  too  much  moisture  in  the  air  the 
quality  of  the  eggs  will  be  injured,  and  if  there  is  not  enough  moisture  the 
contents  of  the  eggs  will  be  likely  to  evaporate  and  injure  their  selling 
cjuality. 

Another  way  of  keeping  eggs  in  condition  for  use  while  being  trans- 
ported to  foreign  countries  is  by  desiccating  them.  This  method  is  not 
yet  in  general  use,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  will  ever  become  popular,  as  dried 
eggs  are  not  likely  to  become  a  favorite  article  of  diet  except  where  condi- 
tions make  it  necessary  to  have  them  reduced  in  bulk  to  the  smallest 
dimensions.  These  exceptional  calls  for  desiccated  eggs  are  numerous 
enough  to  keep  several  large  establishments  busy. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  data  concerning  the  commercial  transactions 
in  eggs  further  back  than  a  few  years,  as  they  were  not  considered  of  enough 
importance  to  become  objects  of  statistical  information.  The  writer  was 
one  of  the  first  to  call  attention  to  neglect  in  this  direction,  and  some  years 


72  The    Poultry    Book 

ago  spent  considerable  time  in  an  endeavor  to  estimate  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy  the  number  of  eggs  produced  in  this  country.  When  these 
statistics  were  first  given  out  they  were  received  with  increduhty,  and 
were  the  subject  of  much  good-natured  raillery.  However,  when  serious 
attention  was  given  to  the  matter  it  was  found  that  the  estimate  was 
lower  than  the  facts  justified. 

Even  yet  it  is  very  hard  to  obtain  accurate  information  on  this  point, 
as  the  average  farmer  still  suspects  that  his  hens  are  not  very  profitable, 
although  this  error  is  rapidly  being  dissipated  by  the  mass  of  facts  that 
are  being  placed  before  him  by  the  experiment  stations,  government 
statisticians.  State  and  national,  and  by  private  individuals  who  are  inter- 
ested in  giving  the  facts  the  widest  publicity. 

The  poultry  press  of  the  country  has  become  a  great  means  of  dis- 
seminating information  on  this  subject,  there  being  now  in  the  United 
States  about  sixty  journals  devoted  especially  to  the  poultry  industry, 
several  of  which  have  a  wide  circulation,  one  as  many  as  100,000  copies 
each  issue. 

For  the  purpose  we  have  in  view  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  very  far  back 
into  the  statistical  records,  even  if  it  were  possible  to  do  so.  Except  as  a 
matter  of  curious  information,  it  is  not  necessary  to  know  how  many  eggs 
were  produced  one  hundred  years  ago,  nor  what  they  were  valued  at. 

One  remarkable  phase  of  the  subject  is  the  rapid  increase  of  the  egg 
production  of  the  country.  While  the  statistics  on  this  subject  are  no 
doubt  faulty  to  the  extent  that  they  do  not  with  any  degree  of  accuracy 
give  the  number  of  eggs  produced  in  this  country,  being  entirely  too  low, 
yet  for  purposes  of  comparison,  one  year  with  another,  they  answer  very 
well  in  showing  the  increase  of  the  industry. 

While  the  average  farmer  knows  almost  exactly  how  many  bushels  of 
wheat  or  how  many  pounds  of  wool  he  produced  the  year  before,  he  very 
rarely  knows  how  many  eggs  were  produced  on  his  farm.  The  writer 
has  had  occasion  to  talk  on  the  subject  before  a  great  many  audiences 
composed  of  farmers,  and  has  many  times  asked  that  every  one  in  the  audi- 
ence who  knew  exactly  how  many  fowls  there  were  on  their  farms  would 
rise  to  their  feet.  There  never  has  been  a  response  to  a  request  of  this 
kind,  except  on  one  occasion  a  farmer  arose  and  said  he  knew  to  a  certainty 
how  many  hens  he  had.  When  asked  how  many,  he  triumphantly  replied, 
■"One,"  and  sat  down  ^mid  a  roar  of  laughter. 


SILVER-GREY   DORKING   COCK 
.  Arthur  C.  Major's  Crystal  Palace  (1902)  prize  winner 


The    Commercial    Egg  73 

Because  of  this  general  apathy  concerning  exact  statistics  relating 
to  the  poultry  industry  the  estimates  furnished  by  various  departments 
are  not  at  all  exact,  nor  can  they  compare  for  accuracy  with  the  statistics 
on  this  subject  published  by  European  governments. 

According  to  the  census  of  1890,  the  number  of  eggs  produced  during 
that  census  year  was  820,000,000  dozen,  in  round  numbers.  During  that 
year  this  country  imported  1 5,000,000  dozen,  which  were  valued  at  the  point 
from  which  they  were  imported  at  $2,000,000.  In  1890  this  coimtry 
exported  381,000  dozen,  valued  at  $59,000.  Ten  years  later  but  225,000 
dozen  were  imported,  valued  at  $21,000,  and  the  same  year  3,694,000 
dozen  were  exported,  valued  at  $641,000. 

In  1901  the  importation  of  eggs  had  fallen  to  126,520  dozen,  valued 
at  $10,515.  The  same  year  egg-yolks  were  imported  to  the  value  of  $246. 
In  1900  we  exported  5,920,727  dozen  eggs,  valued  at  $984,081,  and  egg 
yolks  valued  at  $883.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  during  ten  years  there 
has  been  a  complete  reversal  of  conditions  so  far  as  supplying  the  domestic 
demand  is  concerned. 

The  increase  in  numbers  is  also  very  marked.  As  stated  above,  the 
number  of  dozen  produced  in  1890  was  820,000,000,  while  according  to  the 
census  returns  of  1900  the  production  during  that  census  year  amounted 
to  the  immense  number  of  1,293,819,186  dozen.  These  at  twelve  cents  a 
dozen  were  worth  $155,258,302,  an  immense  sum  for  an  industry  that 
only  a  few  years  ago  was  not  considered  of  enough  importance  to  have 
a  place  in  the  industrial  statistics  of  the  country. 

If  we  consider  in  this  connection  the  number  of  eggs  produced  in 
Canada  the  industry  would  make  a  still  more  impressive  showing,  as  that 
country  has  also  been  making  rapid  strides  in  egg  production,  and  the  export 
trade  has  had  the  careful  attention  of  the  experiment  stations,  which  have 
encouraged  it  and  have  been  at  considerable  expense  to  educate  the  farmers 
of  the  Dominion  concerning  the  importance  of  the  industry  and  the  most 
economical  methods  for  producing  eggs. 

Besides  the  regular  commerce  in  eggs  that  are  gathered  up  and  dis- 
tributed in  the  usual  channels  of  trade,  a  great  volume  of  business  is  done 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  in  the  way  of  supplying  eggs  to  private 
families.  With  the  increase  of  wealth  in  this  country  has  come  a  class  of 
people  who  are  willing  to  pay  extra  prices  for  articles  of  the  finest  quality. 
Poultrymen,   taking  advantage  of    this    fact,    have    begun    catering    to 


74  The    Poultry    Book 

this  trade,  and  around  the  larger  cities  are  many  poultry  farms  the  owners 
of  which  sell  eggs  to  private  families  at  prices  much  higher  than  that  paid 
in  the  open  market.  The  best  hotels,  restaurants  and  clubs  also  prefer  to 
buy  all  their  eggs  from  one  farm  when  they  can  do  so,  and  are  willing  to 
pay  fancy  prices  for  guaranteed  stock. 

It  is  customary  for  these  egg-farmers  to  guarantee  every  egg  the}^ 
sell  to  be  perfectly  fresh  and  not  over  a  certain  age,  some  Hving  near  their 
customers  making  the  outside  limit  as  low  as  forty-eight  hours. 

In  some  cases  the  egg-farmers  live  as  far  as  300  miles  from  the  market 
they  cater  to,  this  distance  allowing  quick  delivery  by  express.  In  New 
York  State  there  are  a  number  of  egg-farms  the  owners  of  which  receive 
large  revenues  from  their  egg  trade  alone,  and  all  of  the  large  cities  are 
becoming  surrounded  by  farms  of  this  kind,  which  are  Yery  profitable. 

Some  of  these  egg-farmers  receive  a  stated  price,  say  fifty  cents  a  dozen 
from  November  i  to  May  i  and  a  somewhat  lower  price  for  the  remaining 
months  of  the  year.  Others  receive  a  stated  advance  on  the  highest  market 
price  the  day  the  eggs  are  sent  to  market.  One  of  these  whom  we  know 
receives  fifty  per  cent,  above  the  highest  market  price  and  another  receives 
fourteen  cents  a  dozen  above  the  highest  open  quotations,  whatever  they 
may  be. 

This  is  a  branch  of  the  business  that  is  capable  of  almost  indefinite 
expansion,  as  the  demand  for  fancy  eggs  increases  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  supply. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Petaluma,  California,  there  is  a  whole  community 
that  makes  the  production  of  eggs  almost  its  only  work.  These  eggs  are 
sold  in  San  Francisco,  and  the  number  shipped  from  the  one  small  town 
is  marvelous. 

It  is  estimated  that  about  100,000  hens  are  kept  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Petaluma,  and  the  net  profit  from  these  is  from  $1  to  as  high  as 
$2.50  each  in  a  year.  This  town  is  the  most  distinctively  poultry  town  in 
America,  and  its  trade  is  constantly  increasing.  Here  it  is  that  we  see  to 
what  an  extent  the  trade  in  eggs  may  be  developed  by  carefully  educating 
the  people  to  an  appreciation  of  its  possibilities. 

With  present  facilities  for  cold  storage  on  long  voyages  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  United  States  might  not  develop  the  trade  in  eggs  until  it 
would  become  one  of  the  leading  if  not  the  foremost  industry  in  the  country. 

A  considerable  branch  of  the  trade  in  eggs  is  that  of  buying  and  selling 


The   Commercial    Egg 


75 


eggs  for  hatching.  What  this  amounts  to  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  even 
approximately,  but  that  it  amounts  to  a  large  sum  is  evident  from  the 
number  of  poultry  breeders  who  annually  advertise  eggs  for  hatching  for 
sale.  Some  of  the  poultry  journals  have  as  many  as  i,ooo  advertisements 
of  eggs  for  hatching  in  a  single  issue  during  the  season  when  eggs  for  hatch- 


iARLY    TO    BED 


ing  are  m  demand,  and  single  breeders  sell  thousands  or  dollars'  worth 
every  year. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  rarely  sold  for  less  than  $i  per  dozen  and  fre- 
quently for  much  more.  Breeders  of  great  reputation  sell  eggs  for  as  high 
a.  $6  for  thirteen,  and  one  at  least  gets  $i  each  for  eggs  from  his  best  fowls 
and  cannot  supply  the  demand  at  this  price. 

While  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  eggs  has  grown  to  be  one  of 
great  proportions,  it  is  A^ery  generally  believed  by  those  who  have  given 
the  matter  attention  that  it  is  yet  in  its  infancy  and  that  it  will  continue 
to  grow  indefinitely  and  expand  into  one  of  the  great  branches  of  the 
commerce  of  the  world. 

As  the  country  becomes  settled  and  the  inhabitants  crowd  more 
closely  together  the  production  of  beef,  pork  and  mutton  must  continually 


76  The    Poultry    Book 

decrease,  as  compared  with  the  increase  in  the  population,  and  this  will 
very  naturally  turn  the  attention  of  the  public  in  other  directions  for  food 
to  supply  the  place  now  taken  by  meats. 

Poultry  can  be  kept  on  a  very  limited  area,  and  the  production  of  eggs 
can  be  carried  on  in  confined  quarters,  and  eggs  will  largely  take  the  place 
of  meat. 

These  conditions,  together  with  the  increasing  liking  of  the  consumer 
for  eggs  as  a  regular  part  of  the  daily  food,  lead  us  to  believe  that  the 
commercial  egg  is  destined  to  become  of  more  and  more  importance 
as  time  passes. 

Foreign  Eggs 

Of  foreign  eggs  the  American  poultryman  of  to-day  knows  but  little 
from  experience.  As  has  been  stated,  but  few  eggs  are  imported  into  this 
coiintry  from  other  countries,  and  a  large  per  cent,  of  these  are  from 
Canada,  which  we  have  ceased  to  think  of  as  a  foreign  country,  this  being 
especially  true  of  poultry  men,  who  regard  their  Canadian  brethren  as 
compatriots,  and  in  no  sense  foreigners. 

The  duty  of  five  cents  a  dozen  that  is  collected  on  all  eggs  that  are 
imported  into  this  country  makes  it  unprofitable  to  bring  them  across  our 
borders  in  large  numbers,  except  at  times  when  they  bring  exceptionally 
high  prices,  and  the  bulk  of  the  importations  come  from  that  part  of  Canada 
bordering  our  own  country,  these  being  carried  over  by  the  producers 
and  sold  in  towns  and  cities  that  lie  on  the  border,  such  as  Buftalo 
and  Detroit. 

The  average  price  of  imported  eggs  for  the  five  years  from  1892  to 
1896,  both  inclusive,  was  11.8  cents  per  dozen,  while  the  average  price  for 
the  five  years  from  1897  to  1901,  both  inclusive,  had  fallen  to  7.8  cents  per 
dozen.  During  this  period  the  price  fluctuated  from  4.9  cents  per  dozen 
in  1898  to  9.5  cents  in  1899. 

A  considerable  number  of  eggs  are  received  from  foreign  coimtries  for 
hatching,  but  no  statistics  concerning  this  branch  of  the  industry  are 
available,  as  eggs  for  hatching  are  listed  with  those  imported  in  a  com- 
mercial way. 

The  Chinese  import  a  good  many  eggs  which  have  been  prepared  for 
food  in  the  ways  pecuHar  to  that  people,  one  Chinese  delicacy  being  eggs 
that  have  been  buried  for  several  years  and  are  then  used  as  appetizers. 

It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  the  import  trade  in  eggs  will  increase 


The    Commercial    Egg  77 

beyond  its  present  limits  unless  prices  should  become  very  much  higher 
than  they  are  now  in  this  country. 

This  country  is  rapidly  increasing  the  number  of  eggs  produced,  and 
is  now  able  to  export  large  numbers  at  a  profit,  while  those  imported  are 
made  more  costly  by  the  duty  imposed  on  them. 

The  production  of  eggs  in  this  country  will  naturally  become  more 
and  more  a  regular  business,  and  the  economies  that  are  constantly  being 
devised,  and  the  improvement  in  the  laying  qualities  of  our  hens,  w^hich  is 
becoming  more  pronounced  under  the  stimulus  of  good  prices  and  insistent 
demand,  will  make  it  possible  for  American  poultrymen  to  compete  in  the 
open  markets  of  the  world  with  the  poultry  breeders  of  any  other  country. 

For  these  reasons  the  subject  of  foreign  eggs  has  but  little  interest  for 
American  poultrymen  except  as  it  relates  to  the  methods  that  obtain  in 
those  countries,  and  then  only  as  a  matter  of  information  that  has  no 
bearing  on  the  financial  aspect  of  the  industry. 


Photograph  by  courtesy   of  "Commercial  Poultry  ' 
WHITE    WYANDOTTE    COCK 
Owned  by  C.  J.  Larson,  of  Illinois 


78 


The   Poultry    Book 


=^  I 


O  O  O  N 

^    ■<)■  "_  CC 

■*   O'    =:  M 


gwg 


O  C    O    O   r~ 
0_  S.  r-  X  S_ 


-O   ■^O    OOO  I^ 


O    M    N    ►-    O 


o>  o 


-o  o-  ^  -t  t^       o  t^  M  o  "^        o  o  X  : 


>0  M   f.  O. 


ooooo  o  r- 


o  o  X  »/:        o  o  y: 


o  y.  y: 


o_  t^  N  o_  0_ 

00  CO    MOO    M 


CC   O   t-  c 
O    ",  -    = 

r-  ;>  o_  ••; 


>  o  o_  -■_  "_ 
•-jo'  6 p  \n 


o,  o>  -t ' 
a  o"  N  ^i 
in-yo  o  0 


Ov  O  O    M  ^O    M    I 


O  r~vO  o.  O 
o-  o>  o=c_oo_ 


VIM  r^UlTJ-MOv  H-tNi 

1M«  CO  ONr-  COOm( 

■  m'  rt         m"       too"  ui         cJ  t^  c^ 


Ov  t^  N  O  CO    N  to         loco 


'C'C-js-i:  ^ 


ii  C   C   t;   u   > 


The    Commercial    Egg 


79 


f.DO   t~  o    o 
N   Ov  «  o  :c 


"1  H  CO  X  -X   O  : 


oa  P 


o-o  o  o  o 

00     M     O    Ov   N 

in  n"  c?  o" 

O    ■*  -O  CK 
tC  I-."        in"  tC 


)  o.  o 


o  o  o  o  o 

K  ~o  -t  S  =c 


o  o  o  o 

CO    r^X    •* 

d"  i-^  m'  o" 


\0\C       ^        O:     O  MCOf^' 

o  00  M  •*  o       t^  o  'to  c 


O    O    O   in 

fO  in   M_0 
M    cT   (>  T? 


H  in  o   "0  tN  o  >n 

in  o'  o"  't  in         r^  o" 


O  Tf  ~-,  o  I^         o 
o  "  o  in  n 
inx"  :>  >-"  ts" 


00  o  m-jo   o 


O    Ov  •*  O  =0 


M_  N    M_v£ 


1-1  M  \0 


Ovin  o.  ■* 


c  o  J3  S 


•*  O    M    o    I^ 

a  tJ  pT  o"  tJ- 


2;2:2;2;2;     ^oooa,     pSwmH     h^>>     ^^^^ 


tS'S  c       tax! 
3  ri  c       X  03 

O   Of' 


HAMBURG    COCK  S    HEAD 


EGGS  FROM   A  GENERAL   POINT  OF  VIEW 


]\IiLLER  Purvis,   Illinois 


■SIDE  from  its  commercial  importance  the  egg  has  ahvays 
been  an  article  of  diet  that  has  been  held  in  high  esteem, 
even  the  most  ignorant  savages  understanding  its  nutritious 
qualities.  Perhaps  no  article  of  diet  is  more  uni\-ersally 
used  than  eggs.  They  are  esteemed  by  all  nations  and 
every  shade  of  religious  belief  except,  perhaps,  some  of  the 
stricter  sects  of  India.  Not  only  are  the  eggs  of  domestic  poultry  used,  but 
those  of  wild  birds,  turtles  and  fish  are  held  to  be  a  delicacy  by  the 
different  nations,  according  to  the  degree  of  civihzation  and  national 
customs.  The  Eskimos  of  the  Far  North  seek  the  eggs  of  wild  fowl, 
while  the  natives  of  tropical  countries  dig  in  the  sand  for  the  eggs  of 
turtles  as  delicacies  to  be  added  to  their  food-supply.  Even  in  civilized 
countries  eggs  of  certain  wild  birds  are  sought  for  food,  and  the  eggs 
of  wild  duck,  plover,  herons  and  other  wild  fowl  are  freely  eaten,  and 
are,   in  fact,  wholesome  and  nutritious. 

The  more  civiHzed  people  could  hardly  dispense  with  it,  and  its  place 
in  the  dietary  rises  in  importance  as  cooking  becomes  more  esteemed  as 
one  of  the  sciences.  While  the  egg  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  as 
an  article  of  food,  its  real  value  has  only  recently  been  demonstrated  by 
chemical  analyses  and  careful  experiments.  ]Many  extremely  interesting 
experiments  have  been  made  in  testing  the  quality  of  eggs  as  an  article  of 
diet,  and  some  of  these  have  produced  surprising  results. 

8i 


82 


The    Poultry    Book 


[Adapted  after  Marshall] 


Structure  of  an  Egg 
An  egg  is  curiously  constructed,  and  it  may  be  interesting  to  examine 
briefly  how  it  is  built  up.     The  egg  consists  of  three  parts,   commonly 
recognized.     These  are  the  shell,  the  white  and  the  yolk.     The  shell  is 

composed  of  calcareous  crystals  so  united 
that  it  is  very  porous,  allowing  the  ingress 
of  oxygen  in  the  process  of  incubation  and 
the  egress  of  carbon  dioxid,  one  of  the 
poisonous  waste  products  of  the  processes 
of  life.  Inside  the  outer  shell  is  a  membrane 
of  a  fibrous  nature,  w^hich  is  closely  attached 
to  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell,  except  at 
the  larger  end,  where  it  is  divided  and  forms 
a  disk-shaped  cavity  which  is  known  as 
the  air-space  or  air-bubble  (sv  in  the  illustration).  Inside  the  inner 
membrane  is  a  viscid  fluid  commonly  called  "the  white,"  which  consists 
of  84  per  cent,  water,  12I/3  per  cent,  albumen,  i  per  cent,  mineral  matter 
and  2y^  percent,  sugar.  Suspended  in  the  w^hite  is  the  yolk,  a  yellowish 
spherical  mass  of  matter  consisting  of  52  per  cent,  water,  45  per  cent, 
oil  and  about  i  per  cent,  each  of  coloring  matter,  albumen  and  mineral 
matter. 

The  albumen  or  white  is  of  different  degrees  of  density.  The  yolk 
retains  its  spherical  shape  for  a  considerable  time,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  enclosed  in  a  transparent  membrane  called  the  vitelline  membrane.  The 
yolk,  as  shown  at  y,  also  consists  of  several  layers  enclosing  a  small  whitish 
ball  or  sphere,  from  which  extends  a  canal  terminating  in  a  vesicle  known  as 
the  germinal  vesicle.  From  opposite  sides  of  the  yolk  extends  twisted  fila- 
ments, as  seen  at  n'c,  denser  than  the  white,  called  the  chalaza,  which  are 
attached  at  the  inner  and  large  ends  to  the  vitelline  membrane  and  to  the 
inner  membrane  of  the  shell  at  the  outer  ends.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to 
hold  the  yolk  in  position  and  at  the  same  time  act  as  a  spring  to  counteract 
the  effect  of  sudden  shocks. 

The  germinal  vesicle  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  invariably  keeps  the 
side  of  the  yolk  to  which  it  is  attached  on  the  upper  side.  This 
germinal  vesicle  is  the  spot  where  the  spermatozoa  of  the  male  is 
deposited  after  copulation,  and  its  characteristic  of  always  coming  to  the 
top,  no  matter  how  the  eggs  may  be  turned,  is  a  natural  provision  that 


Eggs    in   General  83 

always  keeps  the  embryo  in  such  a  position  that  the  heat  of  the  incubator 
or  of  the  setting  hen  is  next  to  the  embryo  chick. 

The  yolk  of  the  egg  is  formed  in  the  egg-sac  or  ovary  of  the  hen  or 
other  female  bird,  and  at  the  proper  time,  depending  largely  on  the  food 
consumed  and  the  time  of  the  year,  a  yolk  is  detached  from  the  several  that 
are  to  be  found  in  the  ovary  and  passes  down  the  oviduct,  the  albumen 
being  deposited  in  the  course  of  this  passage,  the  inner  membrane  forming, 
and  finally  the  shell,  and  the  perfect  egg  is  expelled.  As  a  rule,  it  requires 
about  two  days  for  the  yolk  to  become  a  perfect  egg,  but  in  several  breeds 
of  hens  eggs  will  be  produced  several  days  in  succession,  and  in  exceptional 
cases  this  will  continue  for  a  considerable  period,  and  an  egg  will  be 
deposited  every  day  for  a  number  of  days. 

The  process  by  which  the  inner  membrane  is  formed  is  not  well  under- 
stood, but  it  is  known  that  the  shell  is  formed  by  the  deposit  of  minute 
crystals  of  lime  on  the  inner  membrane.  Sometimes  eggs  will  be  deposited 
without  the  outer  shell,  or  with  such  a  thin  coating  of  shell  m.aterial  that 
it  breaks  when  touched.  The  inner  membrane  is  usually  strong  enough 
to  hold  the  contents  from  being  lost.  These  are  known  as  soft-shelled 
eggs,  and  are  due  to  overproduction,  or  to  some  abnormal  condition  of 
the  organs  that  causes  a  suspension  of  the  functions  to  the  extent  that 
lime  is  not  elaborated  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  material  for  the 
shell.  It  will  be  seen  that  an  egg  is  a  very  complicated  structure, 
composed  of  the  most  fragile  materials,  yet  so  put  together  that 
it  will  withstand  considerable  rough  usage  without  material  damage 
being  done  to  it. 

If  a  fresh  egg  is  boiled  hard  and  carefully  dissected  the  different  parts 
can  readily  be  distinguished  and  the  several  layers  of  the  white  and  yolk 
can  easily  be  separated.  Naturally  eggs  are  not  constructed  for  any 
rougher  usage  than  they  would  receive  by  being  deposited  in  a  nest  and 
covered  by  the  female  during  the  course  of  incubation.  When  carried 
long  distances  by  the  ordinary  means  of  transportation  the  several  parts 
are  very  likely  to  be  disassociated  to  some  extent,  but  if  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  day  or  two  the  natural  condition  will  return. 

Eggs  are  of  various  colors  and  the  shells  differ  greatly  in  thickness 
and  strength.  The  eggs  of  most  wild  birds  seem  to  have  been  designed 
by  nature  in  such  colors  as  will  cause  them  to  be  inconspicuous  when 
unprotected  in  the  nest,  but  there  are  notable  exceptions  to  this,  as  the 


84 


The   Poultry    Book 


light -blue  egg  of  the 
robin  or  the  pure  white 
one  of  the  dove,  both  in 
striking  contrast  to  the 
material  usually  found  in 
the  nests  of  these  birds. 
The  eggs  of  domestic 
poultry  vary  greatly  in 
size,  as  has  been  noted  in 
a  previous  chapter.  The 
egg  of  the  bantam  will 
weigh  about  fourteen 
ounces  to  the  dozen, 
while  that  of  the  goose 
will  weigh  as  much  as 
five  pounds  to  the  dozen. 
While  not  strictly 
along  the  line  of  this 
work,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  all  eggs  are  not  identical  in  chemical  composition.  Birds  are  di- 
vided into  two  distinctive  classes.  The  young  of  one  class  are  hatched  with 
a  full  coat  of  feathers,  and  of  the  other  without  plumage.  The  common 
domestic  hen  belongs  to  the  first  class,  the  plumage  being  represented  by 
down,  and  the  robin,  dove  and  other  birds  are  among  the  second  class. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  egg  that  contains  the  elements  which  will 
furnish  a  complete  bird,  including  the  plumage,  must  be  more  nutritious 
than  one  that  produces  a  bird  without  plumage.  The  eggs  of  the  first  class 
are  found  on  analysis  to  be  the  most  nutritious.  While  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  eggs  contain  all  the  elements  of  nutrition,  this  belief  is  an 
error.  It  is  true  they  contain  all  the  elemients  necessary  to  the  growth  of 
the  young  bird,  just  as  milk  is  the  natural  and  sufficient  food  for  young 
mammals,  but  eggs  are  not  composed  of  all  the  elements  of  nutrition 
necessary  to  mature  growth. 


WHITE    LEGHORN    HEN — A    PRIZE-WINNER 
Owned  by  Henry  Van  Dreser,  New  York 


Eggs  as  Characterized  by  Breeds 

The  eggs  of  birds  have  a  wide  range  of  color,  as  has  been  noted,  but 
those  of  domestic  hens  are  not  especially  different.     The  colors  range  from 


Eggs    in   General 


85 


pure  white,  through  shades  of  cream  color  to  yehowish  brown  or  pink  with 
a  purple  tinge.  The  eggs  of  each  breed  have  a  distinct  range  of  colors  of 
their  own  that  do  not  vary,  although  several  breeds  may  produce  eggs  of 
the  same  general  color.  It  is  also  true  that  individual  hens  often  produce 
eggs  of  a  distinctive  shape,  which  is  easily  recognized  by  the  poultry  keeper 
who  pays  close  attention  to  his  flocks. 

It  has  been  determined,  after  repeated  experiments,  that  the  weight 
of  eggs  in  different  individuals  in  the  same  breed  of  fowls  will  vary  con- 
siderably, and  it  has  been  noticed  that  generally  the  hen  producing  the 
largest  number  of  eggs  will  produce  eggs  that  are  smallest  or  weigh  the 
least,  although  this  is  not  invariably  the  case. 

The  Hamburg  class,  which  is  acknowledged  to  be  among 
the  most  productive  of  all  domestic  poultry,  produces  the  smallest 
eggs  of  any  breed. 

The    Leghorn    family    is    probably  next    to   the    Hamburgs    in   egg- 
production,  and  the  eggs  of  hens  of  this  family  are  rather  small,  although 
recent  attempts  at  producing  a  strain  that  will  produce  large  eggs  seem 
to  be  meeting  with   some 
success. 

The  Minorcas  produce 
very  large  eggs  and  a  great 
number  of  them.  They  are 
a  much  larger  breed  than 
the  Hamburgs  and  con- 
siderably larger  than  the 
Leghorns,  but  not  enough 
so  to  account  for  the 
difference  in  the  size  of 
the  eggs  produced  by  them. 

The  eggs  of  the  Asiatic 
family,  which  includes  the 
several  varieties  of  Cochins 
and  Brahmas,  are  of  good 
size,  but  this  class  is  not  " 
included  among  the  prolific 
layers.  It  would  not  be  -'.-: 
fair,  however,  to  leave  the 


Front  a^lu 
OLD-STYLE    BLACK    ORPINGTON 


86  The    Poultry    Book 

impression  that  all  Cochins  and  Brahmas  are  poor  layers,  for  there  are 
records  of  very  notable  exceptions  to  such  a  rule.  Light  Brahma  hens 
have  been  known  to  produce  as  many  as  233  eggs  in  a  year,  and  no  doubt 
proper  attention  to  food  and  care  would  place  this  class  in  a  higher  position 
than  it  now  holds  in  this  respect. 

For  the  last  twenty-five  years  poultrymen  have  been  paying  more 
attention  to  perfecting  the  shape  and  color  of  the  various  breeds  of  poultry 
than  to  the  production  of  eggs,  and  this  has  beyond  dispute  led  to  a  falling 
off  in  egg-production.  The  establishing  of  egg  farms  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  has  led  to  the  more  careful  selection  of  hens  with  great  productive 
capacity.  Several  of  the  experiment  stations  have  introduced  the  trap- 
nest,  by  which  hens  may  be  identified  with  the  eggs  laid  by  them,  and  by 
this  means  flocks  of  great  egg-producing  capacity  are  being  built  up  and 
strains  are  being  estabhshed  which  will  lead  to  a  much  greater  average 
production  per  annum  than  is  now  the  case. 

Influence  of  Feed  upon  Eggs 

The  public  is  largely  in  error  concerning  the  nutritive  qualities  of  eggs. 
It  is  quite  generally  believed  that  an  egg  w4th  a  deep  yellow  yolk  is  more 
nutritious  than  one  with  a  yolk  of  a  fighter  color.  It  is  also  commonly 
believed  in  some  communities  that  an  egg  with  a  dark  shell  is  more 
nutritious  than  one  wfith  a  pure  white  shell.  Careful  analyses  fail 
to  uphold  these  opinions,  which  have  no  foundation  on  any  well- 
considered  theory. 

It  has  been  found  by  repeated  analyses  that  the  color  of  the  yolk  or  the 
color  of  the  shell  makes  no  difterence  in  the  nutritive  value  of  the  eggs. 
Eggs  may  vary  slightly  in  nutritive  value,  but  the  analyses  indicate  that 
the  variation  happens  as  often  between  eggs  from  hens  of  the  same  breed 
as  between  those  of  different  colors  or  shades  of  yolk  or  shell. 

In  the  matter  of  flavor  there  is  a  very  wide  dift'erence  in  eggs.  While 
no  breed  can  be  said  to  furnish  eggs  of  a  distinctive  quality,  the  eggs  from 
one  breed  of  hens  being  exactly  similar  in  flavor  to  those  of  another,  yet 
the  difference  between  the  eggs  of  two  flocks  of  the  same  breed,  kept  under 
different  conditions,  may  be  very  marked. 

Fowls  that  are  fed  on  clean,  w^holesome  feed  are  superior  in  flavor  to 
those  fed  on  inferior  or  tainted  feed  of  any  kind.  Even  musty  or  molded 
grain,  which   fowls  will  eat   readily,  may  impart  to  eggs  a  flavor  that  at 


Eggs    in   General 


87 


once  marks  them  as  lacking  in  that  deHcious  one  that  belongs  to  eggs  of  the 
highest  class. 

Fowls  fed  on  clean,  sweet  feed,  sound  grains,  untainted  animal 
feed  and  sound  vegetables  furnish  the  highest  quality  of  eggs.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  this 
should  be  such  food  as 
human  beings  would  eat 
to  make  the  egg  perfectly 
good  and  of  fine  flavor. 
A  hen  roaming  the  fields 
may  pick  up  many  insects 
and  much  food  material 
that  would  not  be  con- 
sidered fit  for  human  use 
but  which  is  essentially 
free  from  decay  or  other 
unwholesome  qualities. 
Such  substances  may  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  egg 
organs  of  the  hen  be  trans- 
formed into  eggs  that  could 
not  be  distinguished  from 
those  produced  by  the  most 
careful  attention  to  feeding. 
When  hens  are  allowed  per- 
fect liberty  and  select  their 

feed  from  manure  piles  and  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  the  eggs 
take  on  a  flavor  that  is  at  once  detected  by  any  one  who  attempts  to  eat 
them  after  being  accustomed  to  eggs  produced  from  clean  and  wholesome 
food-stuffs. 

Experiments  at  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station  showed  con- 
clusively that  hens  fed  on  strong-flavored  feeds  produced  eggs  with  a 
flavor  characteristic  of  the  feeds  provided  for  them.  When  hens  were 
given  onions  freely  the  eggs  were  so  strongly  flavored  with  onions  that  they 
were  unfit  for  food,  and  several  days  elapsed  before  this  flavor  disappeared. 

The  New  York  Experiment  Station  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
effect  of  the  feed  eaten  by  hens  on  the  eggs  produced  by  them,  and  these 


if^'vi^-t^i'vl'^ 


FIRST    PRIZE    SII.VFk 
Owned  by  Ja 


)(~)TTK    COCKEREL 
Canada 


88  The    Poultry    Book 

experiments  led  to  the  conclusion  that  hens  fed  on  highly  nitrogenous  feeds 
produced  eggs  that  were  inferior  in  flavor  to  those  produced  by  a  carbon- 
aceous ration.  They  had  a  disagreeable  flavor  and  odor,  the  eggs  and 
yolks  were  smaller  and  the  keeping  qualities  not  so  good. 

At  the  Hatch  Experiment  Station,  in  Massachusetts,  cabbage  and 
clover  were  fed  to  difl'erent  lots  of  hens,  and  it  was  found  that  the  eggs  from 
hens  fed  cabbage,  while  heavier  and  containing  a  larger  percentage  of 
dry  matter,  were  inferior  in  flavor  and  cooking  qualities  to  those  from  hens 
fed  clover. 

It  is  logical  to  conclude  from  these  several  experiments,  all  of  which 
were  very  carefully  conducted  by  those  with  experience  in  experimental 
work,  that  the  quality  of  eggs  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  quality 
of  the  feed  the  hens  consume. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  matter,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  say  that  color  of 
shell,  color  of  yolk  or  breed  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  nutritive  value  or 
flavor  of  eggs,  but  that  feed  is  the  sole  factor  that  influences  for  good  or 
bad  in  this  respect. 

Eggs  of  Other  Fowls 

The  eggs  of  turkeys  are  so  seldom  used  for  human  food  that  it  is  not 
worth  while  to  consider  them  in  this  connection.  Those  of  ducks  are  con- 
sidered "rank"  and  of  an  undesirable  flavor  for  human  food,  although  a 
goodly  number  are  used  for  this  purpose.  They  are  so  much  larger  than 
hens'  eggs  that  they  command  a  premium  of  a  few  cents  a  dozen  in  most 
places,  and  for  this  reason  farmers  usually  sell  them,  reserving  hens'  eggs 
for  their  own  use.  Bakers  and  confectioners  are  partial  to  the  eggs  of 
ducks,  as  they  are  said  to  be  superior  to  hens'  eggs  for  their  uses. 

Goose  eggs  are  also  of  more  pronounced  flavor  than  hens'  eggs.  They 
are  often  sold  in  the  markets  at  about  twice  the  price  of  hens'  eggs,  and, 
like  duck  eggs,  go  generally  to  bakers  and  confectioners. 

The  eggs  of  the  Guinea-fowl  are  quite  small  and  are  not  greatly  esteemed 
on  this  account,  although  the  flavor  is  not  at  all  disagreeable,  the  Guinea 
being  rather  dainty  in  its  selection  of  feed,  searching  diligently  for  worms, 
insects  and  seeds.  The  number  produced  is  inconsiderable  and  probably 
is  not  increasing. 

Judging  Eggs 

There  is  really  no  standard  by  which  eggs  are  judged  in  this  countr>^ 
It  is  so  seldom  that  a  prize  is  oftered  for  eggs  that  no  serious  consideration 


^^ 


"%%" 


is 

o 
^    >; 

H     1:3 
H     g 

EH        2 


»'• 


Eggs   in   General  89 

has  been  given  to  the  subject,  except  in  cases  where  some  one  who  has  been 
called  upon  to  act  as  judge  has  formulated  a  standard  for  his  own  use. 
Some  years  ago  the  New  York  Poultry  Bulletm  published  the  following  scale 
of  points,  but  it  has  never  been  generally  adopted : 


1.  Weight 

2.  Freshness  .  .  .  .?VV^.    ..JU^ 
O- — >.   Coioi^f  Yolk 

4.   Flavor 

^"*""^~-5.   Consistence  of  Albumen  .  .  . 

6.  Even  Color  of  Shell 

7.  Thickness  of  Shell 

8.  Perfection  of  Otitline 

9.  Freedom  from  Ridges 

10.   Cleanliness 


Points 
20 
15 

10 

—  T_0 

10 

10 

—    -L-O 

10 

5 

ii 


i\t  the  Boston  Poultry  Show,  January,  1903,  Mr.  George  V.  Fletcher, 
who  judged  the  eggs,  used  a  standard  of  his  own  devising,  as  follows : 

Perfection       Cuts 

Shape — Large  and  oval  and  showing  a  similarity  in  size 30 

Color — Very  dark  brown  for  brown  eggs  and  ^'ery  white  for  white  eggs  over  all 

the  shell 40 

Weight — The  heaviest  standard  and  others  to  be  cut  one-half  point  for  e\-ery 

ounce  under  the  heaviest 15 

Condition — Fresh  laid  and  perfectly  clean 15 

Total 100 

Disqualifications — Double  yolk,  unsound  and  cracked  eggs. 

Commenting  on  this.  The  Keiv  York  Produce  Review  says : 
"  Of  course  in  formulating  a  score-card  on  the  point  system,  the  effort 
should  be  to  allot  more  or  less  points  to  each  element  of  quality  according 
to  its  relative  importance  in  affecting  value.  There  might  be  some 
difference  in  a  proper  apportionment  of  the  points  according  to  the  use  to  be 
made  of  the  scoring.  If  the  score-card  were  designed  for  judging  fancy 
hennery  eggs  sent  to  a  poultry  show  (when  freshness  might  be  taken  more 
or  less  for  granted) ,  it  might  be  proper  to  lay  relatively  greater  importance 
on  size  and  color,  but  even  for  such  use  it  appears  absurd  to  allot  forty  points 
of  the  100  to  color  and  only  fifteen  to  freshness;  then  it  would  seem  absurd 
to  give  shape  twice  as  many  points  as  wciglit. 

' '  I  suppose  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  eggs  are  scored  on  the  point 
system  for  regular  market  grading  (if,  in  fact,  they  will  ever  be  so  graded), 
but  the  above  attempt  suggests  the  possibility,  nevertheless,  and  it  may  be 


90  The    Poultry  Book 

interesting  to  consider  what  kind  of  a  scoring  basis  would  be  practical.  Of 
the  elements  of  quality  we  should  say  that  the  essentials,  placed  in  the  order 
of  their  importance  in  afTecting  value,  would  be :  First,  freshness ;  second, 
size ;  third,  cleanness ;  fourth,  packing ;  and  the  relative  importance  of  these 
elements  of  quality  represented  in  points  might  be,  for  freshness  fifty  points, 
for  size  and  cleanness  tw^enty  points  each,  for  packing  ten  points." 

In  our  opinion,  either  of  these  standards  could  be  very  much  improved. 
Inasmuch  as  it  is  impossible  to  test  an  egg  for  flavor  without  destroying  it, 
and  no  one  egg  can  be  taken  as  representing  the  flavor  of  any  other,  it  seems 
to  us  that  size,  color  and  shape  should  be  the  three  factors  chiefly  considered. 
]\Iinor  points  would  be  condition,  relating  to  cleanliness  and  freshness, 
and  manner  of  packing — this  on  the  supposition  that  no  one  would  exhibit 
a  stale  egg.  If  the  judging  were  for  market  qualities,  condition  would  be 
counted  as  fully  of  as  much  value  as  size.  However,  the  matter  is  yet  of 
very  little  importance,  and  is  only  referred  to  in  this  connection  that  it  may 
suggest  some  concerted  action  that  will  lead  to  the  establishing  of  a  recog- 
nized standard  by  which  eggs  may  be  judged  uniformly  wherever  exhibited. 

Laying  Qualities  of  Breeds 

The  laying  qualities  of  some  of  the  breeds  of  fowls  kept  in  this  country 
have  been  already  referred  to.  When  we  begin  the  discussion  of  this  point 
we  are  well  aware  that  we  are  on  dangerous  ground  for  two  reasons:  i. 
Each  breed  and  variety  has  its  champions  among  the  many  poultry  breeders 
of  the  country,  and  no  champion  is  willing  to  acknowledge  that  his  breed 
can  be  beaten  by  any  other.  2.  There  has  been  so  little  done  in  the  way 
of  keeping  accurate  account  of  the  actual  production  of  eggs  by  the  different 
breeds  that  it  is  not  possible  to  give  exact  figures  except  in  a  few  cases. 

The  experiment  stations  of  the  country  have  not  been  greatly  inter- 
ested in  this  phase  of  the  subject  and  have  given  but  little  attention  to  it. 
A  good  many  reports  have  been  made  by  poultry  keepers,  but  most  of  these 
lack  in  some  respect  and  cannot  be  put  forward  as  tests  that  have  been  so 
carefully  made  as  to  be  accorded  a  place  as  records  on  which  to  base  positive 
statements.  We  hear  about  flocks  that  will  average  200  eggs  per  year  for 
each  hen  in  them,  but  we  have  abundant  reasons  for  thinking  these  are 
more  in  the  nature  of  guesses  than  actual  accounts  carefully  kept. 

It  is  usually  believed  that  the  Hamburgs  are  the  most  persistent 
layers  of  any  breed  commonly  kept,  but  as  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn 


PRIZE-WINNING    PLYMOUTH    ROCK    COCKEREL 

Owned  by  E.  M.  Gill,  New  York 

(Second  at  New  York  Poultry  Show  in  1903) 


Eggs    in   General  93 

there  is  not  a  single  record  ux)on  which  to  base  a  behef  of  this  kind.  The 
Hamburgs  are  no  doubt  good  layers,  but  they  do  not  lay  in  cold  weather, 
and  it  is  probable  that  their  persistent  laying  during  the  summer,  when  the 
larger  breeds  are  inclined  to  sit,  gave  them  their  reputation  for  prolificacy. 
The  Hamburgs  were  never  very  popular  in  this  country,  and  it  is  probable 
that  fewer  of  them  are  now  bred  than  was  the  case  a  few  years  ago. 

The  Mediterranean  class  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  laying  qualities  and 
is  steadily  becoming  more  popular  with  those  who  make  the  production  of 
eggs  a  special  feature.  This  class  includes  the  several  varieties  of  Leghorns, 
the  Minorcas,  the  iVnconas  and  the  Black  Spanish.  All  of  these  are  good 
layers,  and  the  laying  qualities  of  the  breeds  are  steadily  being  improved 
through  the  careful  attention  of  egg-farmers.  The  White  Leghorn  is  the 
most  popular  variety  in  this  entire  class,  and  a  large  number  of  the  great 
egg-farms  of  this  country  are  stocked  with  White  Leghorns  exclusively. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  great  egg-farms  of  New  York  and  those  around 
Petaluma,  California,  where  there  are  very  few  flocks  of  any  other  variety. 

Next  to  the  Mediterranean  class  comes  the  American  class,  which 
includes  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  the  Wyandottes  in  all  their  varieties,  the 
Javas  and  the  American  Dominiques.  These  are  usually  called  general- 
purpose  fowls,  but  recent  attempts  at  improving  their  egg-producing 
qualities  have  succeeded  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Wyandottes  promise 
to  become  known  as  a  very  prolific  breed. 

The  Orpingtons  have  not  been  bred  long  enough  m  this  country  to 
establish  their  qualities,  but  from  reports  that  come  from  breeders  they 
seem  to  be  a  promising  breed  for  the  production  of  eggs.  As  they  are  a 
new  breed,  in  which  there  is  a  Hamburg  cross,  it  is  probable  that  they  will 
prove  to  be  among  our  best  layers  and  possibly  take  first  place  among  the 
larger  breeds. 

Among  the  Asiatic  breeds,  which  include  Brahmas,  Cochins  and 
Langshans,  the  latter  are  generally  most  highly  esteemed  as  egg-producers, 
the  Light  Brahmas  coming  next  and  the  Cochins  considerably  below 
these. 

The  Dorkings,  the  French  and  Pohsh  breeds  are  not  highly  esteemed, 
although  the  Houdans  are  fairly  prolific,  laying  a  large  white  egg.  How- 
ever, they  are  not  classed  among  the  most  popular  fowls  in  this  country. 
The  Andalusians  and  the  Minorcas  are  both  fairly  good  layers,  and  some 
strains  of  each   breed   are   among  the   best,    and    great   pains    are   being 


94 


The    Poultry    Book 


taken  to  improve  them  in 
this  respect.  Statements 
are  frequently  found  in  the 
newspapers  ostensibly  giv- 
ing the  number  of  eggs 
produced  per  annum  by 
the  different  breeds,  but, 
as  we  have  said,  these  are 
simply  guesses,  and  in 
almost  every  instance 
where  careful  records  have 
been  kept  it  has  been 
found  that  exceptionally 
good  layers  and  very  poor 
ones  may  be  found  in  the 
same  breed. 

Light  Brahma  hens 
have  been  known  to  lay 
more  than  230  eggs  in  a 
year,  and  where  good  care 
and  proper  attention  to 
kind  and  quality  of  feed  is  given  this  breed  is  no  doubt  a  very  good  one 
for  the  production  of  eggs.  The  writer  has  known  a  flock  of  Single  Comb 
Brown  Leghorns  to  lay  an  average  of  179  eggs  each  in  a  year,  but  this 
flock  was  given  every  attention. 

At  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  126  Plymouth  Rock  hens  were  tested 
for  one  year,  after  they  first  began  laying.  Of  these,  24  produced  from 
160  to  206  eggs,  but  three  making  a  record  above  200.  Of  the  same  flock 
there  were  22  hens  that  failed  to  lay  as  many  as  100  eggs  during  the  first  year 
after  beginning  to  lay.  Some  of  this  flock  made  a  record  as  low  as  36  eggs 
during  the  year. 

At  the  same  time  56  White  Wyandottes  were  tested  and  9  were  found 
that  laid  from  165  to  208  eggs  in  a  year,  3  laying  200  or  more.  Of  this  flock 
7  laid  fewer  than  100  eggs,  the  lowest  record  being  59.  Of  56  Light  Brah- 
mas  tested  in  connection  with  the  two  flocks  above  referred  to,  6  laid  from 
179  to  194  eggs  in  a  year,  5  laid  fewer  than  100,  ranging  from  55  to  87,  and 
45  from  100  to  160  each. 


LAXGSHAN    PULLET 
I  by  Harrison  Weir— Third  generation  from  imported  birds 


Eggs    in   General 


95 


The  Farmers'  Sentinel  for  February  12,  1903,  gives  an  account  of  a 
flock  of  White  Leghorns  numbering  900  that  averaged  197  eggs  each 
during  one  year,  but  gives  no  information  as  to  how  the  record  of  this  flock 
was  kept. 

It  is  conceded  that  if  the  best  hens  in  any  flock  were  selected  year  after 
year  and  used  for  perpetuating  the  flock  there  would  be  a  rapid  and  marked 
improvement  in  the  yield  of  the  flocks  of  the  country. 


Influence  of  Feeds 

Some  experiments  at  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  proved 
that  the  feed  provided  for  laying  hens  makes  a  great  difference  in  their  pro- 
duction of  eggs.  These  experiments  showed  that  a  nitrogenous  ration 
promoted  egg-production  to  a  remarkable  degree.  The  fowls  used  were  as 
nearly  identical  in  age  as  possible,  and  all  the  conditions  were  exactly  the 
same  in  caring  for  the  two  lots  except  in  the  quality  of  the  feed  provided 
for  them. 

Both  lote  were  fed  in  the  morning  with  ground  feed  mixed  either  with 
boiled  potatoesor, 
steamed  clover  hay.  The 
carbonaceous  lot  were 
fed  principally  on  com  in 
the  shape  of  meal,  while 
the  nitrogenous  lot  were 
fed  a  mixture  of  brown 
middlings,  oil  meal  and 
ground  oats  and  corn- 
meal  in  varying  propor- 
tions, for  their  grain 
ration.  At  noon  the 
nitrogenous  lot  received 
a  feed  of  ground  fresh 
meat  at  the  rate  of  from 
five  to  eight  pounds  to 
the  100  birds.  At  night 
the  fowls  in  both  flocks 
were  fed  all  the  whole  - 
grain  they  would  eat  up  b  d^  h    ■     J'^''?>,T'' ''■^''.     •       ..-. 

■^  -T  Bred  by  Harrison  Weir— Third  generation  from  imported  birds 


96  The  Poultry  Book 

clean,  consisting  of  corn,  oats  and  wheat  screenings,  corn  predominating 
for  the  carbonaceous  lot. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  the  fowls  were  weighed.  The 
experiment  continued  for  seven  consecutive  months,  and  during  that  time 
the  nitrogenous  fowls  gained  in  weight  about  one,  pound  four  ounces  each, 
while  the  gain  in  weight  for  the  carbonaceous  lot  was  only  about  one- 
tenth  of  a  pound  each. 

In  this  experiment  one  pen  each  of  Light  Brahmas,  White  Leghorns  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  were  used  for  each  kind  of  feed.  At  the  end  of  the  seven 
months  the  nitrogenous-fed  fowls  had  produced  eggs  as  follows :  White  Leg- 
horns, 72.03  each  ;  Light  Brahmas,  40.41  each ;  Rhode  Island  Reds,  62.15  each. 
The  carbonaceous-fed  fowls  had  produced  eggs  as  follows :  White  Leghorns, 
33.92  each;  Light  Brahmas,  22.74  each;  Rhode  Island  Reds,  40.42  each. 

During  the  seven  months  the  nitrogenous-fed  pens,  calculating  100 
liens  to  the  pen,  laid  17,459  eggs,  and  the  carbonaceous-fed  pens  9,708  eggs. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nitrogenous  feed  not  only  added  to  the  weight 
of  the  hens,  but  stimulated  them  to  produce  nearly  twice  as  many  eggs  as 
were  produced  by  the  carbonaceous-fed  hens.  The  value  of  the  eggs  pro- 
duced was  as  $194.84  to  $119.06  in  favor  of  nitrogenous  feed. 

Allowing  market  price  for  added  weight  and  eggs  produced,  the  three 
pens  fed  on  nitrogenous  feed  yielded  a  profit  above  cost  of  feed,  during  the 
seven  months,  of  $97.90,  while  the  profit  from  those  fed  on  carbonaceous 
feed  was  but  $20.59.  ^"^s  the  experiment  began  in  October  and  was  con- 
tinued through  the  winter,  the  egg-production  was  very  good. 

In  every  case  the  eggs  from  nitrogenous-fed  hens  were  heavier  than  those 
from  the  hens  fed  on  a  carbonaceous  ration,  the  difterence  averaging  a  little 
over  one  pound  to  100  eggs.  Incubation  tests  showed  that  the  nitrogenous- 
fed  hens  produced  better  eggs  for  hatching  than  the  carbonaceous-fed  lots. 
Of  two  lots  of  eggs,  one  from  hens  fed  on  each  kind  of  feed,  the  nitrogenous- 
fed  eggs  show^ed  65  infertile,  the  carbonaceous-fed  129.  Of  the  nitrogenous 
lot  260  hatched,  and  of  the  carbonaceous  lot  but  146.  Sixty-six  per  cent, 
of  the  nitrogenous  eggs  hatched  and  but  47  per  cent,  of  the  carbonaceous  lot. 

It  was  found  that  eggs  from  nitrogenous-fed  hens  hatched  about  twelve 
hours  the  sooner  and  that  the  chicks  were  stronger  than  those  from  eggs  laid 
by  carbonaceous-fed  hens.  These  experiments  were  repeated  the  next  year 
with  almost  identical  results,  showing  the  importance  of  proper  feed  in  the 
production  of  eggs  in  numbers  and  in  their  quality  when  used  for  hatching. 


Eggs  in    General 


97 


One  curious  result  of  the  different  kinds  of  feed  was  noticed.  The 
shells  of  the  Light  Brahmas  fed  on  nitrogenous  feed  were  pinkish  in  color, 
while  those  fed  on  carbonaceous  feed  were  of  various  shades  of  brown. 


Laying  Capacity  of  Breeds 
In  Bulletin  29,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  T.  F. 
McGrew  gives  the  following  as  the  average  egg-production  in  the  breeds 
named  under  the  very  best   man- 

agement: Barred  Plymouth 

Rocks,    150  per  .^^^^b.  year;   Buff'  Ply- 

mouth Rocks,  "^j^^^  150;     Single 

Comb     Brown  J^  ^S^  Leghorns,      160; 

Single     Comb  ^R^      ^'^Ml  -^^^     Leghorns, 

160;  Silver  Wy-  J^^'  *  ^  ''W  andottes.  White 

Wyandottes  wi , ' '    1  '  ^%^     ^^^^'^^^         ^^^      Rhode 

InTJieBiisi-  Wft/'f^s.  '^ -'^'^  ^^^^^  '^'^"'  Rural 
Publishing  Com-  V^^'^  ^  '^"'K  pany,  New  York, 
1892,  page  57,  '  1k^^  %,..u^i^^^  ^'  ^'  ^^^P"^^^' 
a  well-  known  ^l  ^'^^3^  writer  on 
poultry  subjects,  ^^^^fWf  ''  ^^^^  ^^  visited 
a  flock  of  White  ^  ''/H/'^  Leghorns  num- 
bering  600  which  ^'/ '^^  11  produced  an  av- 
erage of  168  eggs  A  "*  each  in  one  year. 
A  s  h  e  g  i  V  e  s  s  quite  full  details, 
this  is  probably  ^„  •■  -  .  approximately 
correct  for  that                        black  Hamburg  hen  flock.        The 

James  Long's  first  prize 

writer  visited  the    same    flock 

in  1902  and  found  descendants  of  the  fowls  Mr.  Chapman  described 
ten  years  before,  and  was  led  to  believe  the  flock  had  been  improved 
since  that  time. 

We  may  safely  take  it  for  granted  that  it  would  not  be  a  hard  matter 
to  breed  a  flock  of  fowls  of  any  of  the  popular  breeds  that  would  average 
^50  eggs  per  year,  and  by  careful  selection  and  the  use  of  trapnests  this 
yield  could  without  doubt  be  increased  one -third. 

Taking  the  census  returns,  which  show  an  average  of  about 
five   dozen  eggs    per    hen,    it    is    readily    seen    that    there    is    abundant 


98  The    Poultry    Book 

room  for  improvement  in  the  matter  of  egg-production  in  the  fiocks  of 
this  country. 

It  is  noticeable  that  in  every  contest  that  has  been  held,  and  in 
every  experiment  public  or  private,  it  has  been  pure -bred  hens  that  have 
excelled  as  layers.  The  ordinary  mongrel  stock  of  the  country  does  not 
make  large  egg  records.  In  fact,  it  is  altogether  probable  that  the  average 
"native"  or  cross-bred  hen  is  kept  at  a  very  small  profit  at  the  best,  and 
often  at  a  positive  loss. 

The  importance  of  keeping  pure-bred  fowls  is  becoming  better  under- 
stood all  the  time,  and  the  proportion  of  mongrels  is  growing  smaller  con- 
stantly. This  is  shown  when  we  compare  the  census  reports  of  1890  with 
those  of  1900,  the  average  production  of  eggs  per  hen  during  that  time 
having  increased  about  100  per  cent. 

It  has  repeatedly  been  shown  that  the  most  profitable  year  of  a  hen's 
life  is  the  year  after  she  first  begins  to  lay.  There  has  been  considerable 
speculation  as  to  the  number  of  eggs  it  is  possible  for  a  hen  to  produce 
during  her  lifetime,  and  some  investigators  have  placed  the  number  as 
high  as  600,  estimating  that  these  would  be  produced  during  nine  years. 

The  modern  poultryman  cares  nothing  about  the  possible  number  of 
eggs  a  hen  can  produce.  What  he  cares  most  for  is  the  profitable  number, 
and  the  general  rule  of  egg-farmers  now  is  to  sell  the  hens  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year  after  they  begin  laying,  say  at  about  the  age  of  eighteen 
months,  having  pullets  coming  forward  to  take  their  places.  Where  this 
rule  is  practiced  every  effort  is  made  to  promote  early  maturity,  strong, 
vigorous  growth  and  the  greatest  possible  egg-production. 

As  older  hens  produce  the  best  eggs  for  hatching,  it  is  common  to 
reserve  enough  stock  to  furnish  eggs  for  hatching  from  birds  two  years  old, 
but  this  will  require  a  comparatively  small  number,  and  the  rule  of  keep- 
ing only  pullets  for  egg-laying  holds  good.  No  doubt  the  low  average  pro- 
duction shown  by  the  census  reports  is  due  in  some  measure  to  the  fact 
that  many  farmers  keep  their  hens  year  after  year  until  many  of  them  have 
ceased  to  lay  more  than  a  few  eggs  each  season. 

The  natural  time  in  the  year  for  a  hen  to  lay  is  during  the  spring  and 
summer.  The  original  Jungle  Fowl  laid  twenty  or  thirty  eggs,  hatched  her 
brood  and  reared  them,  and  her  work  for  the  year  was  done.  Under  the 
influence  of  domestication  the  laying  period  has  been  extended  to  nine  or 
ten  months  of  the  year,  the  average  hen  laying  some  eggs  during  every^ 


Eggs    in    General  99 

month  in  the  year  except  during  the   molting  period,  or  while  incubating 
and  brooding  her  young. 

It  is  usual  for  hens  to  fail  to  produce  eggs  during  the  period  of  molting, 
although  good  layers  will  produce  an  egg  occasionally  even  while  taking 
on  a  new  suit  of  plumage.  Usually  it  requires  about  three  months  for  a 
hen  to  molt  and  resume  laying  regularly.  This  leaves  about  nine 
months  in  the  year  as  the  period  of  possible  egg-production.  In  the 
case  of  the  Wyandotte  hens  we  have  referred  to  which  produced  200  eggs 
in  a  year,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  space  of  nine  months  they  produced 
eggs  to  the  extent  of  about  four  times  their  own  weight,  as  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection  fixes  the  weight  of  a  Wyandotte  hen  at  six  and  one- 
half  pounds,  and  w^hen  in  full  laying  condition  they  rarely  reach  this 
weight. 

Winter  Egg-Production 

It  makes  considerable  difference  to  the  poultryman  whether  his  hens 
produce  eggs  freely  in  winter  or  not.  During  the  winter  eggs  are  usually 
three  or  four  times  the  price  they  can  be  sold  for  during  the  summer,  and 
it  follows  that  the  winter-laying  hen  is  the  most  profitable  one  to  keep. 
Therefore,  during  the  last  few  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to 
promoting  egg-production  in  the  winter  months.  The  Langshans,  the 
Plymouth  Rocks,  the  Light  Brahmas  and  the  Wyandottes  are  more 
inclined  to  lay  in  winter  than  any  other  breeds,  and  will  produce  a  few  eggs 
during  this  season  without  having  extra  care.  ^  1^ 

Thejioted  laying  breeds,  such  as  the  Leghojjis,  Minorcas,  Andalusians 
and  Har^urgs,  are  naturally  somewhat  sensitive  to  cold,  and  to  induce  them 
to  lay  during  the  winter  they  must  be  given  the  best  care  and  properly 
prepared  rations. 

It  is  now  very  well  understood  that  in  order  to  promote  the  production 
of  eggs  beyond  the  normal  number  hens  must  be  fed  such  feeds  as  contain 
the  elements  of  which  eggs  are  composed.  The  large  percentage  of 
albumen  in  the  composition  of  an  egg  indicates  the  necessity  of  a  ration 
rich  in  nitrogenous  elements,  while  for  the  fats  in  the  yolks  the  need  of 
carbonaceous  feeds  is  indicated. 

Animal  feed  of  any  kind  is  rich  in  the  albuminoids,  and  the  leguminous 
plants  are  also  among  the  nitrogenous  feeds.  This  led  to  careful  experi- 
ments in  feeding  fresh  bone,  ground  fine,  butchers'  scraps  from  which  the 
fat  had  been  removed,   and  finally  to  dried   and   ground  beef   scraps  so 


lOO  The    Poultry    Book 

prepared  that  but  little  fat  was  left  in  them.  These  are  now  sold  almost 
ever\'where,  so  prepared  that  they  will  remain  fresh  and  sweet  for  an 
indefinite  time  if  kept  dry. 

Peas,  beans,  clover-ha}'  cut  in  very  short  lengths  or  ground  into  a  meal  are 
also  used — the  cut  or  ground  clover  in  very  large  quantities,  large  factories 
being  operated  to  supply  the  demand  for  it,  and  several  large  factories  are  en- 
gaged in  making  dried  and  ground  beef  scraps  for  poultry  feed.  Dried  blood 
is  also  esteemed  as  an  exceptionally  good  egg-food.  Green  vegetables,  such  as 
cabbages  and  any  of  the  root  crops,  are  used  to  furnish  vegetable  feed  of  a 
succulent  nature,  whiich  has  been  found  to  promote  the  production  of  eggs. 

By  providing  warm  houses,  well  lighted  and  kept  in  a  sanitary  condi- 
tion, and  feeding  these  special  feeds  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  grains  grown 
on  the  farm,  it  is  now  quite  possible  to  stimulate  the  hens  and  furnish 
conditions  so  nearly  natural  to  the  normal  period  of  laying  that  many 
flocks  produce  eggs  freely  during  the  severest  weather  of  the  year. 

At  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  two  flocks  identical  in  every 
respect  were  fed  the  same  kind  of  feed  and  given  the  same  care  except  that 
one  flock  was  kept  in  a  cold  house  and  the  other  in  a  house  that  was  per- 
fectlv  warm  and  comfortable.  The  flock  kept  in  the  cold  house  laid  4,136 
eggs,  while  the  flock  kept  in  the  warm  house  laid  5,239,  a  difterence  in  favor 
of  the  warm  house  of  1,103  eggs,  worth  at  the  time  the  experiment  was 
made  $22.06.  This  is  only  one  of  many  experiments  that  have  been  made 
along  the  same  line,  and  in  every  case  the  results  have  agreed  with  those 
obtained  in  this  one. 

Cost  of  Egg-Production 

Some  interesting  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  cost  of 
producing  eggs.  Unfortunately,  in  all  these  experiments  the  items  of 
interest  on  investment,  depreciation  of  plant  and  cost  of  labor  was  not 
considered.  Therefore  the  results  have  shown  only  the  feed-cost.  The 
writer  kept  careful  account  with  a  flock  of  Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorns 
for  one  year  and  found  the  feed-cost  of  the  eggs  produced  by  this  flock  was 
almost  exactly  5.25  cents  per  dozen. 

In  a  prize  competition  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Ohio  Fanner 
several  years  ago  the  writer  was  selected  to  award  the  prizes.  Seventy-two 
flocks  were  in  the  competition,  and  this  lasted  from  ]\Iay  ist  to  November 
I  St.  The  cost  of  the  eggs  produced  by  these  flocks  during  the  period  of  the 
tests  was  almost  exactly  six  cents  a  dozen. 


Eggs   in   General 


lOI 


The  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  asked  of  a  large  number  of 
poultry  breeders  the  cost  of  eggs  to  them,  and  the  rephes  indicated  that 
between  five  and  six  cents  a  dozen  was  the  average  feed-cost  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  From  December  i,  1 901,  to  March  29,  1902,  a  period 
of  seventeen  weeks,  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  at  Ithaca,  in  that 
State,  conducted  an  experiment  in  which  ten  of  the  best-known  poultry  men 
of  New  York  kept  account  with  their  flocks,  each  feeding  in  his  own  way. 
There  were  12  flocks  on  the  10  farms,  ranging  in  number  from  25  to  600, 
the  aggregate  being  2,133  hens.  The  average  feed-cost  of  a  dozen  eggs 
during  this  time  was  16.3  cents,  the  lowest  being  8.7  cents  for  a  flock  of 
White  Leghorns  and  the  highest  being  33.9  cents  for  a  flock  of  Black 
Minorcas.  It  should  be  remembered  that  this  test  was  made  during  the 
most  unfavorable  time  in  the  year. 


Selling  Eggs  by  Count  or  Weight 

The  universal  custom  of  selling  eggs  by  count  cannot  be  explained  on 
any  logical  ground.  It  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the  persistence  of  an  old 
custom,  inaugu- 

rated     when  /'  ^     ^^ 

the  eggs  of  the  /^ .         -^  '  -^^Z^*-^ 

country     varied  '  .  • ,  ■  f 

very   slightly  in  \,. 

size  and  weight.  "  ^' 

In    buying    any 

othercom-  g 

modify  the  price 
is  regulated  by 
some  fixed 
standard,  and  a 
certain  weight 
or  ■  measure  is 
used  by  which 
the  cost  is  fixed 
and  made  uni- 
form. Eggs, 
whether  large 

-  .,  SHANGHAI    OR    COCHIN    HEN 

or     small,       are  M.ddle  Penod  ,ype 


I 


I02  The    Poultry    Book 

sold  by  count,  and  the  only  unit  by  which  the  cost  is  fixed  is  the 
dozen  or,  in  England,  the  score.  Whether  the  eggs  are  from  Hamburgs 
and  weigh  twenty-one  ounces  to  the  dozen,  or  from  Minorcas  and  weigh 
thirty  ounces  to  the  dozen,  the  price  is  the  same  if  the  two  varieties  are 
offered  in  the  same  market  at  the  same  time.  It  is  manifestly  unjust 
that  this  custom  should  prevail,  for  the  breeder  of  Minorcas  furnishes 
50  per  cent,  more  food  when  he  sells  a  dozen  eggs  from  his  fowls  than  is 
the  case  with  the  breeder  of  Hamburgs. 

The  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station  took  this  matter  up  and  has 
published  some  interesting  notes  concerning  it.  The  eggs  of  a  number  of 
breeds  of  hens  and  pullets  and  of  Pekin  Ducks  were  carefully  weighed  and 
their. comparative  value  computed.  As  a  rule,  the  eggs  of  hens  were  larger 
than  the  eggs  of  pullets  of  the  same  breed.  The  eggs  of  Pekin  Ducks  were 
considerably  larger  than  the  eggs  of  any  breed  of  hens.  These  duck  eggs 
averaged,  taking  those  from  old  and  young  ducks  together,  35.6  ounces 
per  dozen.  The  largest  eggs  of  any  breed  of  hens  were  those  of  the  Light 
Brahma,  these  weighing  28  ounces  to  the  dozen.  Eggs  laid  by  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  Black  Langshans  weighed  a  trifle  more  than 
26  ounces  per  dozen;  Brown  Leghorn,  late  hatched  Plymouth  Rock, 
White  Wyandotte  and  Buff  Cochin  eggs  weighed  from  21.7  to  23.7 
ounces  per  dozen.  The  heaviest  pullet  eggs  were  those  of  Black 
Minorcas,  which  weighed  26.5  ounces  per  dozen.  The  lightest  pullet 
eggs  were  laid  by  Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorn  and  Silver  Wyandotte 
pullets,  these  weighing  17.5  and  22.1  ounces  per  dozen  respectively. 
The  eggs  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  White  Plymouth  Rock,  White 
Wyandotte,  Black  Langshan  and  Buff  Cochin  pullets  weighed  not  far 
from  24  ounces  per  dozen. 

All  these  eggs  were  worth  in  the  local  market,  at  the  time  the  matter 
w^as  being  investigated,  13^^  cents  a  dozen.  Taking  the  eggs  of  the  Single 
Comb  Brown  Leghorn  pullets,  which  were  the  lightest,  as  the  basis  of  com- 
parison, we  can  easily  compute  the  value  of  those  of  heavier  weight.  The 
Brown  Leghorn  eggs  weighed  17.5  ounces  per  dozen,  and  at  i^^z  cents  per 
dozen  were  worth  almost  exactly  12  cents  a  pound.  This  would  make  the 
eggs  from  Brown  Leghorn  hens,  weighing  21.7  ounces  per  dozen,  worth 
16.3  cents  per  dozen,  and  those  from  Light  Brahma  hens  worth  20.7  cents 
per  dozen,  or  about  60  per  cent,  more  than  the  price  the  market  afforded 
for  them. 


Eggs   in    General 


103 


The  following  tables  from  Farm-  Poultry,  January  i,  1900, 
give  the  breeds  investigated,  the  number  of  eggs  weighed,  the 
weight  per  dozen  and  the  comparative  value  per  dozen,  all  arranged 
to  show  at  a  glance  the  injustice  done  to  some  breeds  by  selling 
eggs  by  the  count. 


Comparative  Value  of  Eggs  by  Weight  and  per  Dozen 


No.  of       Weight 
eggs  per 

laid  doz.  oz. 


Barred  P.  Rock  hens 402 

Barred    P.    Rock   hens    (late 

hatched) 554 

Barred  P.  Rock  pullets 506 

White  P.  Rock  pullets 478 

White  Wyandotte  hens  ....  232 

White  Wyandotte  pullets  ...  689 
S.  L.  Wyandotte  pullets.  . 
S.  C.  Brown  Leghorn  hens. 
S.  C.  Br.  Leghorn  pullets.  . 

Black  Minorca  pullets 354 

Black  Langshan  hens 463 

Black  Langshan  pullets 827 

Buff  Cochin  hens 518 

Buff  Cochin  pullets 83 

Light  Brahma  hens 118 

Light  Brahma  pullets 412 

Pekin  ducks,  old  and  young  44S 


613 

535 
62^, 


26 

3 

23-5 

24 

2 

23 

6 

23 

23 

22 

2  I 

17 

26 

26 

24 

23 

23 

28 

23 

4 

35 

6 

S.  C.  Br.  Leghorn  pullets  13 
S.  C.  Br.  Leghorn  hens  .  .  16 
S.  L.  Wyandotte  pullets. .  16 
Light  Brahma  pullets. .  .  17 
Barred  P.  Rock  Hens  . 
(late  hatched)  .  .  . 
White  Wyandotte  hens 
White  Wyandotte  pullets. 
White  P.  Rock  pullets. 

Buff  Cochin  hens 

Black  Langshan  pullets 
Barred  P.  Rock  pullets  .  .    18 
Barred  P.  Rock  hens.  ...    19 

Buff  Cochin  pullets ig 

Black  Langshan  pullets .  .    19 
Black  Minorca  pullets  19 

Black  Langshan  hens  .  .       20 

Light  Brahma  hens 21 

Pekin  ducks 26.7 


Percentage 
above  mar- 
ket value 


30-4 

30-4 

30-4 

31-^ 

31.8 

31.8 

34.8 

46 

47.2 

47-2 

47.2 

51-4 

60 

97.8 


Until  it  becomes  customary  to  sell  eggs  by  weight  there  will  be  no 
incentive  for  the  poultryman  to  undertake  to  increase  the  size  of  eggs. 
Indeed,  it  is  to  his  advantage  under  the  present  custom  to  produce  small 
eggs,  for  they  can  be  produced  at  less  cost.  At  the  Maine  Station  it  was 
found  that  increasing  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  flock  of  hens  reduced  the 
size  of  them  to  a  marked  degree. 


Value  as  Food 

A  discussion  of  this  subject  would  not  be  complete  if  we  were  to 
omit  reference  to  the  value  of  eggs  as  an  article  of  diet  and  showing 
how  they  compare  with  other  common  articles  of  food.  The  following  table 
shows  the  average  composition  of  eggs,  egg  products,  and  other  common 
articles  of  food.  It  was  prepared  by  Doctor  C.  F.  Langworthy  for  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture : 


I04 


The    Poultry    Book 


Average  Compositiox  of  Eggs,  Egg  Products,  axd  Certain  Other  Foods 


Hen: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion 

White 

Yolk ...; ..  . 

Whole  egg  boiled,  edible  portion  . 

White-shelled  eggs  as  purchased  . 

Brown-shelled  eggs  as  purchased 
Duck: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion 

White 

Yolk 

Goose: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion 

White 

Yolk 

Turkey : 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion 

White 

Yolk 

Guinea-fowl : 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion 

White 

Yolk 

Plover: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased  a 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion  a 

Evaporated  hens'  eggs 

Egg  substitute 

Pudding  (custard)  powder  c 

Cheese  as  purchased 

Sirloin  steak  as  purchased 

Sirloin  steak,  edible  portion 

Milk 

Oysters  in  shell  as  ptirchased 

Oysters,  edible  portion 

Wheat  flour 

Potatoes  as  purchased 

Potatoes,  edible  portion 

a  European  Analyses 


Water        Protein 
Per  Cent.  Per  Cent 


65  ,  5 

73-7 
86,2 

49.5 
73-3 
65.6 
64.  8 

60.  8 
70.5 
87  .0 
45  •« 

59-  7 
69-5 
86.3 
44.  I 

63.5 

73-7 
86.  7 
48.3 

60 .  5 
72.8 
86.6 
40-  7 


Carbo-  Fuel  value 

Fat        hydrates       Ash    per  pound 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Calories 

635 


:3-4 


x.g 

'Z-S 
1.6 
:6.7 


46.9 

73-9 
2  .  I 
25.9 
16.5 
18.9 

I  .  2 

6.2 

II  .4 

1.8 


36 


5-3 

80 . 9 

2  .4 


3-7 
75-1 
14-7 
18.4 


.705 
765 

675 
695 


o  860 

8  210 

2  1,840 

9  760 
865 

8  215 

3  1-850 

8  635 

9  f20 

8  215 

2  1,710 

8  640 

9  755 
8  215 
2  1,655 


625 
695 
^.525 
[,480 
[,690 
^95o 

9S5 

:,i3o 

325 

45 

235 

,650 
310 
385 


The  above  reports  of  analyses  show  that  eggs  consist  chiefly  of  tw6 
nutrients — protein  and  fat — in  addition  to  water  and  mineral  matters  rep- 
resented by  the  ash  contents  as  given  in  the  table.     Usually  li  is  stated  that 


Eggs   in   General 


105 


eggs  are  entirely  deficient  in  carbohydrates,  but  strictly  speaking  this  is  not 
true.  They  contain  a  trace  of  carbohydrates,  but  so  small  is  the  quantit}^ 
that  it  is  negligible  for  all  practical  purposes. 

The  protein  is  that  element  which  builds  up  the  muscles,  skin,  hair, 
nerves,  brain,  viscera,  bones  and  tissues  generally.     The  fat  is  useful  in 


Photograph  furnished  by  MilUr  Purvit 
SPLENDID    LOT    OF    WHITE    WYANDOTTES 


furnish-         ^^^^^^^  ing  energy,  that   power  which  keeps  the  vital 

spark  burning  and  enables  us  to  live  and  move.  Some  energy  is  also 
derived  from  protein,  and  in  case  carbohydrates  or  fat  is  lacking  protein 
supplies  all  of  the  energy. 

As  eggs  are  deficient  in  fat,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  common  custom 
of  combining  eggs  wdth  bacon  or  ham  is  an  effort  to  balance  the  food, 
unconsciously  though  it  may  be  made.  The  potential  energy  of  fat  is  about 
2.4  that  of  carbohydrates,  and  the  use  of  bacon  w4th  eggs  makes  a  very 
fairly  balanced  food. 

In  composition  eggs  resemble  such  foods  as  meat,  milk  and  cheese  much 
more  than  they  do  any  of  the  vegetables.  In  nutritive  value  eggs  stand 
between  cheese  and  milk  or  oysters.  They  very  closely  resemble  average 
meat  in  composition.  From  the  chemical  composition  they  are  shown  to 
belong  to  the  same  class  as  other  animal  foods,  and  may  take  the  place  of 
them.  ^ 


io6  The  Poultry  Book 

Elaborate  experiments  both  in  this  country  and  Europe  have  demon- 
strated that  eggs  are  equally  digestible  with  other  foods  of  their  class  and 
that  they  are  more  thoroughly  digested  than  most  foods  of  similar  com- 
position. In  conducting  dietary  studies  it  has  been  found  that  eggs  at 
12  cents  a  dozen  were  a  cheap  food,  at  i6  cents  they  were  fairly  expensive, 
and  at  25  cents  they  were  considered  very  expensive. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  eggs  at  25  cents  a  dozen  are  cheaper  than 
beef.  This  is  true  in  one  respect.  For  a  family  of  five  it  would  require 
at  least  one  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  beef,  costing  25  cents,  while  in  most 
families  five  eggs  costing  approximately  10  cents  would  satisfy  the  appetite 
as  well  and  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose.  Even  if  the  family  would 
eat  two  eggs  apiece,  the  saving  would  be  20  per  cent. 

During  a  dietary  study  at  Lake  Erie  College  made  by  Miss  Bevier, 
now  of  the  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture,  and  Miss  Sprague,  it  was  found 
in  boarding  a  club  of  young  ladies  that  eggs  costing  $2.50,  when  selling  at 
i62^  cents  per  dozen,  took  th.  place  of  beefsteak  costing  $6.12,  the  beef- 
steak costing  1 7  cents  per  pound :  that  is,  ten  dozen  eggs  would  take  the 
place  of  thirty-six  pounds  of  beefsteak.  However,  it  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood in  this  case  that  the  eggs  were  a  perfect  and  complete  substitute  for 
the  beefsteak  as  far  as  nutritive  value  was  concerned,  for  no  account  was 
made  of  the  nutrients  in  the  other  foods  consumed  at  the  same  meals. 
The  eggs  merely  supplied  and  satisfied  the  appetite  as  far  as  animal  food 
was  needed  much  more  cheaply  than  this  could  have  been  done  if  beef- 
steak had  been  used  in  their  place. 

Palatability  has  much  to  do  with  the  value  of  foods,  although  why  this 
is  so  is  not  well  understood.  Eggs  are  relished  by  almost  every  one,  old 
and  young,  while  meats  are  rejected  by  a  good  many  people.  For  this 
reason  eggs  may  sometimes  be  used  when  meats  would  not  be  available. 
Occasionally  a  person  will  be  found  who  is  made  ill  by  eating  eggs.  Such 
cases  are  no  doubt  due  to  some  individual  predisposition  or  idiosyncrasy, 
as  it  is  not  rare  to  find  those  who  cannot  eat  certain  articles  of  diet  in 
common  use. 

Medical  literature  contains  very  few  cases  of  poisoning  from  eating 
eggs,  so  the  danger  from  this  source  is  very  remote.  Commonly  such  cases 
are  due  to  ptomaine  poisoning  induced  by  eating  eggs  that  are  stale.  In 
these  days  of  sanitary  precautions  common  prudence  would  point  out  the 
n^essity  of  providing  clean  nests  and  clean  runs  and  houses  for  laying  hens. 


Eggs  in  General  107 

The  Preservation  of  Eggs 

Much  time  has  been  expended  and  many  different  processes  tried  m 
efforts  to  discover  some  method  of  preserving  eggs  for  an  indefinite  time. 
Although  it  is  generally  conceded  that  no  process  is  yet  in  use  that  will 
preserve  eggs  for  a  very  long  time,  keeping  them  in  perfect  condition,  yet 
we  constantly  see  in  the  public  press  announcements  of  the  discovery  of 
some  wonderful  preparation  by  which  eggs  can  be  preserved  for  a  term  of 
years,  remaining  perfectly  good  in  every  respect. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  have  given  this  matter  the  most  atten- 
tion are  quite  generally  agreed  that  the  preserving  of  eggs  for  an  indefinite 
time  is  beyond  the  range  of  possibilities.  They  argue  that  any  process  that 
would  preserve  the  eggs  from  gradual  deterioration,  if  not  actual  decay, 
would  necessarily  render  them  unfit  for  food,  and  that  to  undertake  to 
preserve  eggs  fresh  and  sound  is  impossible. 

So  far,  cold  storage  in  specially  prepared  buildings  is  the  best  means  of 
preserving  eggs  in  even  tolerable  condition  for  as  long  as  a  year.  Usually 
eggs  are  not  stored  more  than  a  few  months  at  the  longest.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  eggs  kept  in  cold  storage  lose  flavor  and  deteriorate  to 
such  a  marked  degree  that  one  accustomed  to  eating  perfectly  fresh  eggs 
will  detect  them  at  once  when  put  before  him  on  the  table. 

Many  times  eggs  that  have  been  kept  in  cold  storage  take  on 
a  peculiar  musty  taste  that  makes  them  unpalatable  to  those  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  fresh  eggs,  and  the  best  of  cold-storage  eggs  lose  that 
appetizing  flavor  found  in  new-laid  eggs.  For  culinary  purposes, 
such  as  making  cakes  and  other  made  dishes,  cold-storage  eggs  are  fre- 
quently almost  as  good  as  new-laid  ones,  but  after  they  have  been  stored 
from  April,  the  usual  time  for  putting  them  in  storage,  until  December  or 
later,  they  lose  much  of  their  palatability  when  cooked  alone. 

The  keeping  of  eggs  in  cold  storage  has  been  treated  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  "Commercial  Eggs"  (see  Part  I),  and  need  not  again  be 
taken  up  in  this  connection.  Many  solutions  have  been  tried  as  egg- 
preservatives,  and  many  of  them  have  proved  fairly  efficacious  when 
the  eggs  were  to  be  kept  only  a  few  months. 

When  it  is  desired  to  preserve  a  small  number  of  eggs  for  family  use, 
or  even  to  supply  a  limited  local  demand,  there  are  several  solutions  that 
will  answer  quite  well  for  this  purpose.  These  do  not  require  expensive 
apparatus  or  special  buildings,  and  are  adapted  to  the  use  of  those  who 


io8 


The  Poultry  Book 


want  to  preserve  eggs  from  the 
time  when  they  are  plentiful 
until  the  time  when  they 
become  scarce. 

Before  considering  solu- 
tions it  might  be  well  to  note 
the  most  favorable  conditions 
under  which  eggs  can  be  pre- 
served. They  should  be  from 
hens  that  have  no  males  run- 
ning with  them,  as  an  infertile 
egg  keeps  longer,  even  without 
the  use  of  a  preservative,  than 
does  a  fertile  one.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  an  infertile  egg 
does  not  contain  the  life  prin- 
ciple. It  is  merely  an  inert 
and  dead  combination  of  sub- 
stances provided  by  nature 
for  the  support  of  the  embryo 
chick  during  the  process  of 
incubation. 
When  an  egg  has  become  fertilized  it  contains  a  minute  germ  which 
is  alive  and  under  proper  conditions  is  capable  of  growing  into  a  perfect 
chick.  This  cell  or  germ  is  alive  as  long  as  the  egg  remains  fit  for  food, 
for  when  it  dies  the  process  of  disintegration  that  sets  in  in  the  germ  com- 
municates the  elements  of  decay  to  the  remainder  of  the  egg. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  contents  of  the  egg-shell  are  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  chick  that  may  be  hatched  from  the  egg.  In  fact, 
the  embryo,  the  microscopic  speck  of  protoplasm  in  which  the  life  principle 
resides  and  is  preserved,  in  a  fertile  egg,  bears  exactly  the  same  relation  to 
the  other  contents  of  the  egg-shell  that  the  loaf  of  bread  in  a  baker's  window 
bears  to  the  man  who  purchases  and  eats  it.  The  contents  of  the  egg-shell 
are  the  food  on  which  the  embryo  grows  and  matures  into  a  perfect  chick. 
The  processes  by  which  this  cell  grows  into  a  perfect  chick  may 
not  properly  be  taken  up  in  this  chapter,  but  it  is  an  exceedingly 
complicated  and  interesting  one,  and    one  who  studies  it  comes  as  near 


VOUNG    SILVER 


Photograf'h  by  C.  Retd,  IVishaw.  N.  B. 
iLACK-LACED    WYANDOTTE 


Eggs    in   General 


109 


to  seeing  the  beginning  of  life  as  he  could  in  studying  any  other  phase 
of  animate  existence. 

If  this  life  principle  is  not  present  in  an  egg  the  tendency  to  decay 
and  the  disassociation  of  the  elements  contained  in  it  are  considerably 
retarded.  This  is  proved  in  the  case  of  infertile  eggs  placed  in  an  incu- 
bator. Ac  the  end  of  three  weeks  there  is  no  change  in  them  that  can  be 
observed,  either  as  to  condition  or  flavor.  Except  for  the  natural  prejudice 
that  exists  against  such  a  course,  an  infertile  egg  that  has  been  in  an  incu- 
bator for  three  weeks  is  exactly  as  good  as  it  would  have  been  if  it  had  been 
left  on  the  outside.  But  if  there  has  been  a  Hfe  germ  in  the  egg,  no  matter 
how  weak  it  may  have  been,  even  if  it  should  have  lived  but  a  day  after 
incubation  had  begun,  the  egg  containing  it  decays  and  the  contents 
become  very  offensive  in  appearance  and  smell. 

For  this  reason  infertile  eggs  should  be  selected  when  they  are  to  be 

preserved.     These  eggs  should  be  perfectly  fresh,  also,  for  it  has  been  found 

that  unless  fresh  eggs  are 

used     the     deterioration 

is  marked,  and  if  an  egg 

in  which  decay  has  set  in 

is    placed    in    the  same 

vessel   with   others  it   is 

likely  to  injuriously  affect 

all  the  surrounding  ones. 
The  eggs  that  are  to 

be    preserved   should   be 

clean,    as    filth     of     any 

kind  clinging  to  the  shells 

is  likely  to  taint  the  pre- 
serving solution  and  thus 

taint  the  eggs  in  it. 

No    cracked    eggs 

should    be    placed    with 

sound     ones,    and    great 

care  should  be  taken  not 

to  crack  th^m  when  put- 
ting them  in  the  solution. 
Eggs  that  are  in  a 


LACK-LACED    WYANDOTTES 


no  The  Poultry  Book 

preservative  solution  should  be  kept  in  a  moderately  cool  room,  a  dry, 
clean  cellar  preferably,  as  the  temperature  should  be  kept  as  nearly 
constant  as  possible  with  ordinary  good  care. 

It  has  been  found  that  identical  solutions  did  not  act  in  the  same 
manner  in  different  places,  and  it  may  be  said  they  showed  different  results 
at  times  in  each  experiment  made.  For  instance,  the  same  processes  used  in 
Montana,  Ottawa,  Canada,  and  Berlin,  Germany,  gave  different  degrees  of 
satisfaction.  The  Canadian  experiments,  continued  through  several  years, 
did  not  exactly  agree  with  a  very  careful  series  of  experiments  made  at  the 
Montana  Experiment  Station. 

As  many  processes  are  recommended  and  advertised  for  sale,  it  might 
be  well  to  recount  some  of  the  failures  as  well  as  the  successes.  In  the 
Montana  experiments  two  solutions  were  used,  as  follows: 

1.  Lime,  T,h  pounds:  salt,  4f  pounds;  water,  8  gallons. 

2.  Water-glass,    i    part;   water,    i8   parts. 

About  sixty  dozen  eggs  were  put  in  each  solution  and  the  experiment 
was  continued  for  six  months.  When  examined  the  water-glass  was  found 
to  be  the  best  pickle,  although  the  lime  solution  served  its  purpose  very 
well.  The  whites  of  the  eggs  preserved  in  the  lime-and-salt  solution  were 
found  to  be  much  more  watery  than  was  the  case  with  those  kept  in  the 
water-glass  solution. 

Those  kept  in  the  water-glass  were  difficult  to  distinguish  from  per- 
fectlv  fresh  eggs,  as  the  white  was  quite  firm  and  the  yolk  stood  up  upon  it 
just  as  it  does  in  a  fresh  egg. 

Another  advantage  of  the  water-glass  solution  is  that  it  does  not  affect 
the  shell,  as  is  the  case  where  the  lime  solution  is  used.  Eggs  from  the 
lime-and-salt  solution  were  found  to  be  very  liable  to  crack  either  from 
handling  or  when  cooking. 

Water-glass  or  soluble  glass  is  sodium  silicate  or  potassium  silicate, 
the  commercial  article  frequently  containing  both.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
use  the  chemically  pure  product,  the  ordinary  commercial  water-glass  being 
sufficiently  pure,  unless  it  is  adulterated.  Sometimes  it  is  strongly  alka- 
line, and  this  should  not  be  used.  It  can  be  bought  of  almort  any  drug- 
gist. In  Montana  it  costs  about  75  cents  a  gallon.  Usually  the  price  runs 
from  i^  cents  a  pound  in  carboys  to  10  cents  a  pound  in  small  lots.  It 
comes  either  as  a  smooth,  slipper>^  sirupy  liquid  or  in  powders.  The  liquid 
form  is  preferable.     Only  pure  water  should  be  used  in  making  the  mixture , 


Eggs   in   General  iii 

and  it  is  best  to  boil  it  and  let  it  cool  before  using.  Earthen  jars  are 
recommended  to  hold  the  solution,  and  these  should  be  perfectly  clean.  If 
kegs  or  other  wooden  vessels  are  used  they  should  be  very  thoroughly 
scalded  and  cleaned  before  being  used.  Sometimes  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  solution  is  greater  than  that  of  the  eggs.  When  they  float  to  the  top 
from  this  cause  they  should  be  weighted  down  to  keep  them  entirely 
immersed. 

At  the' Central  Experiment  Farms,  Ottawa,  Canada,  Frank  T.  Shutt, 
M.  A.,  conducted  a  long  series  of  experiments  in  preserving  eggs,  with  the 
following  results,  the  eggs  having  been  kept  in  the  different  preservatives 
from  May  14th  to  December  14th,  a  period  of  seven  months.  When 
examined,  the  eggs  kept  in  saturated  lime-water  showed  the  white 
somewhat  more  limpid  than  in  a  fresh  egg  and  faintly  tinged  with  yellow. 
Yolk  globular,  but  in  one  or  two  cases  attached  to  the  shell.  No 
offensive  odor,  and  appearance,  both  externally  and  internally,  good. 
Discoloration  of  white  somewhat  more  pronounced  on  poaching,  with 
development  of  very  faint  musty  odor.  Though  not  equal  to  a  fresh  egg, 
they  were  quite  usable  and  in  no  sense  offensive. 

Where  saturated  lime-water,  with  the  addition  of  i  per  cent,  of  salt, 
was  used,  the  appearance  was  very  good  both  externally  and  internally. 
White  very  slightly  tinged  with  yellow  and  somewhat  more  limpid  than  in 
saturated  lime-water  alone.  Yolk,  globular;  air  space,  normal.  Faint 
odor,  somewhat  more  marked  on  poaching.  Nothing  disagreeable  in  eggs 
uncooked  or  cooked ;  egg  quite  usable,  but  lacking  the  flavor  of  a  fresh  egg. 
Compared  with  eggs  kept  in  saturated  lime-water  alone  they  were  on 
the  whole  slightly  superior.  In  eggs  kept  in  saturated  lime-water  with 
a  2  per  cent,  addition  of  salt  the  yolk  was  quite  limpid  and  slightly 
brownish.  They  were  fairly  well  preserved,  but  not  equal  to  either  of 
the  foregoing. 

Common  salt  solutions,  i  and  2  per  cent,  respectively,  did  not  give  good 
results.  Eggs  smeared  in  vaseline  and  then  kept  in  lime-water  showed 
markedly  colored  white  and  a  decidedly  musty  odor.  Eggs  covered  with 
paraffine  and  kept  in  lime-water  were  decidedly  inferior.  Eggs  kept  in  a 
5  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  aluminate  were  fairly  good  in  appearance, 
but  had  a  musty  odor. 

Eggs  kept  in  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  water-glass  had  a  marked  soapy 
odor,  and,  on  being  poached,  a  stale  flavor. 


112 


The   Poultry    Book 


Mr.  Shutt  concluded  that  the  saturated  solution  of  lime-water  gave 
the  best  results  and  was  the  cheapest  and  pleasantest  to  handle  of  all  the 

processes  experimented  with. 

This   does   not   agree   with  the  Montana 

experiments,    nor   with    a    series    made 

in  Rhode  Island,  where  a  lo  per  cent. 

solution    of    water-glass     kept    eggs 

in  good  condition   from    May    20th 

to  April  4th  following,  or  a  period  of 

eleven    months.      From     120    eggs 

preserved  in  this  solution  not  one 

was  bad,   and   the  water-glass 

solution  was  pronounced  the  nearest 

to  a  per- 


fect egg 
preser- 
vative 
that  had 
yet  been 
found. 
In  this 


experiment     every    other    process    failed 

in  every  case.     Further  experiments  showed 

that  a   3   per  cent,   solution  of  water-glass  was  as  effective  as  the  one 

containing   10  per  cent.     The  cost  of  preserving  eggs  with  this  solution 


Eggs   in   General  113 

is  placed  at  two-thirds  of  a  cent  per  dozen,  this  including  the  cost  of  the 
vessel  they  were  stored  in. 

An  elaborate  series  of  experiments  in  Germany  did  not  agree  with  the 
Canadian  experiments,  but  partially  agreed  with  the  Montana  and  Rhode 
Island  experiments  in  regard  to  the  value  of  water-glass  in  preserving  eggs. 

Usually  preserved  eggs  do  not  beat  up  well  and  are  of  little  use  for 
making  cakes  and  other  similar  purposes  where  they  must  be  whipped. 
►  Where  they  are  preserved  in  water-glass  they  have  been  found  to  beat  up 
or  whip  as  well  as  fresh  eggs. 

In  view  of  all  the  evidence  we  have  been  able  to  get  we  are  inclined  to 
say  that  the  water-glass  solution  is  the  best  one  that  has  yet  been  tried. 

Eggs  for  Hatching 

The  production  of  eggs  for  hatching  has  become  of  great  importance 
since  the  advent  of  pure -bred  poultry,  and  the  high  value  of  the  eggs  makes 
it  necessary  to  take  pains  to  have  them  of  strong  vitality  in  order  to  secure 
good  hatches,  and  to  handle  them  carefully  to  prevent  the  destruction  of 
the  life  principle. 

It  has  been  found  that  eggs  from  hens  that  have  been  stimulated  to 
induce  egg-production  during  the  winter  do  not  hatch  well,  as  a  rule.  No 
doubt  this  is  due  to  the  low  vitality  of  the  hens,  they  having  been 
exhausted  by  the  long  period  of  production. 

Eggs  from  hens  that  are  too  fat  or  too  poor  do  not  hatch  well,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  provide  some  means  to  induce  the  hens  to  take  exercise  in 
order  to  have  fertile  eggs  strong  in  vitality. 

Very  often  a  portion  of  the  hens  in  a  breeding  flock  will  noi;  allow  the 
attentions  of  a  male  placed  with  them.  To  guard  against  this  it  is  best  to 
have  two  males  with  each  pen,  using  each  on  alternate  days. 

If  the  male  is  active,  vigorous  and  full  of  life  he  usually  pays  more 
attention  to  the  hens,  being  too  gallant  to  eat  until  they  are  satisfied  and 
no  longer  hungry,  by  which  time  there  is  nothing  left  for  him,  and  it  is  not 
unusual  for  a  male  of  this  kind  to  become  very  thin  in  flesh,  when  the  hens 
will  no  longer  produce  fertile  eggs.  This  is  another  argument  in  favor  of 
isolating  the  male  every  other  day,  as  during  the  rest-day  he  will  eat  freely. 

Eggs  that  are  to  be  used  for  hatching  should  be  gathered  several  times 
a  day  if  the  weather  is  at  all  cold.  Eggs  have  been  known  to  hatch  well 
when  left  overnight  with  the   temperature   down   almost  to  the  freezing 


114  The    Poultry   Book 

point,  but  it  is  generally  believed  that  a  temperature  of  45  degrees  F.  is 
as  low  as  is  safe  for  best  results. 

It  is  best  to  set  eggs  immediately  after  they  are  laid.  It  has  been  found 
that  eggs  set  the  day  they  are  laid  hatch  from  twenty  to  thirty  hours  sooner 
than  those  two  weeks  old  when  set. 

It  is  not  possible  always  to  set  eggs  imimediately,  and  often  they  must 
be  kept  for  several  days  before  they  are  set.  Good  hatches  are  frequently 
got  from  such  eggs,  but  it  is  best  to  give  them  good  attention  from  the 
time  they  are  laid  until  they  are  set.  They  should  be  kept  in  an  even 
temperature  between  45  and  60  degrees  F.,  if  possible,  and  should  be  turned 
over  every  day.  Some  poultrymen  use  a  specially  designed  rack  in  which 
the  eggs  are  each  held  separately  with  the  pointed  end  down,  and  at  least 
one  such  egg  rack  is  so  constructed  that  the  shelves  on  which  the  eggs  are 
held  may  be  turned  so  as  to  turn  the  eggs  as  frequently  as  desired. 

Eggs  are  sent  from  England  to  America,  and  from  America  to  England, 
Germany  and  even  to  Australia  and  hatched,  but  the  percentage  of  chicks 
hatched  is  variable.  We  have  known  twelve  eggs  sent  from  England  to 
America  to  produce  ten  chicks,  all  of  which  lived,  and  we  have  known  fifty 
eggs  to  produce  but  three  chicks,  two  of  which  died  in  a  few  davs  after 
emerging  from  the  shell. 

Eggs  are  frequently  shipped  thousands  of  miles  and  a  good  hatch  is 
had  from  them.  When  the  eggs  are  strongly  fertile  it  is  not  unusual  to 
have  every  egg  in  a  clutch  hatch,  even  after  they  have  been  sent  hundreds 
of  miles.  Once  in  a  great  while  there  is  found  a  hen  the  natural  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  not  the  proper  hatching  temperature,  and  in  such  cases  the 
best  eggs  will  not  hatch. 

There  are  several  specially  designed  egg  baskets  and  boxes  on  the 
market,  made  for  sending  eggs  for  hatching  long  distances.  Where  these 
can  be  procured  it  is  best  to  use  them,  as  they  cost  but  a  few  cents  each. 
Where  it  is  impossible  to  get  these,  a  light  basket  may  be  used.  The  writer 
always  wraps  each  egg  separately  in  paper  and  packs  them  closely  in  the 
basket  or  box,  first  placing  a  layer  of  excelsior  or  cut  straw  in  the  bottom. 
The  same  material  is  placed  between  the  eggs  and  another  layer  on  top  of 
them.  The  top  is  then  put  on,  leaving  the  eggs  so  closely  packed  that  they 
cannot  move  from  their  position.  The  elastic  material  serves  as  a  cushion 
to  take  up  sudden  jars  and  the  jolting  of  railway  trains.  The  small  end 
is  always  placed  lowest.     Packed  in  this  way  we  have  shipped  eggs  that 


Eggs   in   General 


115 


went  thousands  of  miles  by  rail  and  then  were  carried  a  long  distance  by 
stage  and  yet  hatched  well. 

After  eggs  for  hatching  have  been  received  from  any  considerable 
distance  they  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours  before  being 
put  under  a  hen  or  into  an  incubator.  The  constant  jarring  received  on  a 
journey  disorganizes 
them  in  a  measure, 
and  if  they  are 
allowed  to  stand 
quietly  for  a  day 
they  will  return  to 
the  natural  condi- 
tion and  the  various 
elements  resume 
their  normal  rela- 
tions to  each  other, 
and  a  better  hatch 
will  be  got  from 
them. 

There  is  no 
known  means  of 
distinguishing  what 
the  sex  of  a  chick 
hatched  from  any 
particular    egg   will 

be.  This  matter  has  been  so  thoroughly  tested  that  there  remains  no 
room  for  doubt.  Neither  is  there  any  method  of  mating  fowls  that  will 
govern  the  sexes.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  mating  a  cockerel 
with  old  hens  would  produce  a  preponderance  of  pullets,  but  this  has 
failed  too  many  times  for  us  to  put  any  reliance  in  it. 

A  rather  extended  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  males  prepon- 
derate in  hatching.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  in  the 
main  we  beHeve  it  will  hold  good.  Double-yolked  eggs  quite  frequently 
hatch,  but  they  usually  produce  monstrosities.  There  are  cases  where  two 
perfect  chicks  have  been  produced  from  one  shell,  but  these  are  exceedingly 
rare.  We  have  never  heard  of  a  case  where  one  of  these  monstrosities 
has  lived  more  than  a  few  hours. 


OLD-STYLE    DL'TCH    PENCILED    HAMBURG 


ii6 


The   Poultry   Book 


It  is  not  a  very  rare  thing  for  a  chick  to  be  hatched  with  some  abnormal 
peculiarity,  such  as  four  legs  or  a  double  head.     These  probably  are  only 
freaks  of  nature  such  as  are  occasion- 
ally found  in  all  animal  life,  being 
more  frequently  found  in  fowls  on 
account  of  the  large  number  kept. 

On  three  separate  occasions  we 
have  known  eggs  laid  by  Guinea- 
hens  which  had  mated  with  a 
common  cock,  to  hatch,  the  cross- 
bred mongrel  resembling  both 
parents  in  some  ways.  The  shape 
of  the  three  we  have  seen  was  dis- 
tinctly that  of  the  Guinea,  and  the 
plumage  had  the  distinctive  spot  of 
the  plumage  of  the  Guinea-fowl  on 
many  of  the  feathers,  but  the  color 
was  more  that  of  the  male  parent. 

Eggs  from  old  hens  produce 
more  vigorous  and  stronger  chicks 
than  those  from  pullets.  For  this 
reason  eggs  for  hatching  should  be 

taken  from  hens  in  their  second  year  rather  than  from  those  in  their  first 
year.  Old  hens  produce  few  eggs  in  winter  and  fewer  at  any  time  in  the 
vear.  This  no  doubt  accounts  for  the  better  quality  of  the  chicks  hatched 
from  their  eggs. 

Development  of  the  Egg 

"Order  is  heaven's  first  law." — Pope's  Essay  on  ^[^.L 

The  following  notes  on  this  important  subject  are  taken  from  Swainson's 
Work  on  "  The  Domestic  Habits  of  Birds,"  London.  To  render  this  curious 
but  difBcult  subject  as  plain  as  possible  to  those  but 
little  acquainted  with  physiology,  we  shall  trace  the 
egg  from  its  appearance  in  the  ovarium,  or  "egg- 
organ"  (as  we  may  call  it),  of  the  hen,  till  the  final 
exclusion  of  the  chick  in  the  process  of  hatching.  This 
subject    has  been   investigated   with   much  care  and 

EMBRYO    IMPREGNATED  i    -n   ■>  r    ^1  u.     J-    ^-  •    1       J        1  J 

EG-.  skill  by  some  of  the  most  distniguished  observers  and 


OVARIUM.    OR    EGG-ORGAN 


Eggs    in   General 


117 


experimentalists  in  consequence  of  the  light  it  was  expected  to  throw 
upon  obscure  points  in  the  early  history  of  other  animals  whose  develop- 
ment was  of  more  difficult  if  not  of  impossible  observation.  We  have 
endeavored  to  condense  the  chief  facts  ascertained  into  a  brief  but  explicit 
sketch. 

"  The  egg  of  a  bird  appears  in  the  egg-organ  (ovarium)  under  the  form 
of  a  small  yellow  globe  or  sphere,  frequently  smaller  than  mustard  seed,  but 
gradually  increasing  in  size  till  it  drops  from  its  slender 


fastening    and  falls  into 
The  egg-organ  contains 
to  be  laid  for  several 
differing    from    the 
as   in  composition 
largest     of    them, 
to    be    first   laid, 
while    the    rest 
crease  in  size  and 
yellow.     It    has 
to     establish     an 
this    detachment 
the    dropping     o  f 
tree ;     but    though 
the     resemblance     of 
we    beHeve     that    such 
Dutrochet    remarks, 
of  observation.     That 
of    the     egg,    however, 
slender  attaching 


BARRED    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 
American  bred 


the  egg-tube  (oviductus). 
all  the  eggs  which  are 
years,  each  egg 
rest  in  size  as  well 
and  color.  The 
which  are  destined 
are  yellowish, 
gradually  de- 
are  less  and  less 
been  attempted 
analogy  between 
of  the  egg  and 
ripe  fruit  from  a' 
we  cannot  deny 
the  circumstances, 
a  n  analogy,  a  s  M. 
will  not  stand  the  test 
the  increasing  weight 
may,  by  stretching  the 
pedicle,     so     attenuate 


the  blood-vessels  that  supply  it  with  nourishment  as  to  greatly  weaken 
and  ultimately  to  break  it,  we  may  with  some  probability  suppose. 
Before  dropping  into  the  egg-tube  there  is  no  white  nor  shell,  both  of 
which  are  formed  there  by  the  addition  of  the  glutinous  substance  called 
albumen  and  of  the  calcareous  substance  constituting  the  shell.  From 
ill-health  or  accidents  eggs  are  sometimes  excluded  from  the  egg-tube 
before  the  shell  has  begun  to  be  formed,  and  in  this  state  they  are 
provincially  termed  'oon'  eggs." 


'^^iK 


f 


t 


w 


c 


Frjm  a  dramng  by  Harr 
A    CAPON    SITTIXG    ON    EGGS 


INCUBATORS   AND   CHICKEN    REARING 
Thomas  F.  McGrew,  New  York 

"The  wise  are  always  learning." — Fitzherbert. 

S  we  have  gained  from  experience  a  better  understanding  of 
the  natural  requirements  for  safe  incubation  of  eggs, 
whether  in  the  natural  way  under  hens  or  within  machines, 
we  are  more  able  to  lend  our  aid  in  the  better  construction 
of  both  nests  and  incubators  to  be  used  for  the  purpose 
intended.  It  is  quite  usual  for  the  hen  that  hides  her  nest 
to  either  select  some  secluded  spot  on  the  ground  or  to  go  into  the  haymow 
or  strawstack.  Seldom,  if  ever,  will  she  select  an  unprotected  spot  that 
must  be  exposed  to  the  changes  of  the  weather.  \Yhen  preparing  the 
nest  for  the  broody  hen,  have  it  so  constructed  as  to  protect  the  eggs  from 
the  under  side.  Do  not  have  it  so  shallow  as  to  furnish  no  protection  to 
the  eggs  from  below,  nor  so  narrow  as  to  have  it  possible  for  a  cold  chill  to 
cast  its  bad  influence  on  the  eggs  from  the  side  or  end.  Have  the  nest -box 
large  enough  to  fully  protect  the  eggs  on  all  sides  and  below  from 
sudden  changes  in  temperature. 

A  good  practice  is  to  cut  a  piece  of  sod  the  size  of  the  box  and  place  it 
in  the  bottom  of  the  nest-box  as  a  protection.  Some  hold  to  the  opinion 
that  the  presence  of  the  sod  lends  aid  in  furnishing  moisture  to  the  eggs ; 

T19 


I20  The  Poultry  Book 

but  whether  this  is  true  or  not,  it  protects  them  from  sudden  changes. 
On  top  of  the  sod  fill  in  with  plenty  of  soft  hay  or  straw  below  and  on 
all  sides  of  the  eggs.  A  nest  so  constructed  aids  the  hen  in  her  continuous 
task  of  incubation  by  holding  about  the  eggs  the  heat  transmitted  to  them 
from  her  body.  On  the  other  hand,  poorly  constructed  nests  allow  of 
possible  injury  to  the  eggs  by  permitting  hurtful  influences  to  gain  ready 
access  to  the  eggs  and  take  from  the  accumulated  heat. 

Having  prepared  the  nest -box,  put  the  broody  hen  in  it.  Under  her 
place  a  few  eggs  of  no  value,  as  dummies,  to  keep  her  quiet  upon  the  nest. 
Some  hens  give  trouble  at  first,  and  it  is  just  as  well  to  have  them  well 
settled  prior  to  giving  them  a  nest  of  eggs  to  incubate.  At  times  it  may  be 
necessary  to  shut  the  hen  on  the  nest  for  several  days,  allowing  her  to  come 
off,  and  watching  her  return  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  her  neglecting 
her  duty.  It  is  always  best  to  have  fresh-laid  eggs  for  incubating,  and  a 
selection  made  so  that  all  the  eggs  under  each  hen  will  be  of  the  same  size,  or 
nearly  so,  and  all  of  one  breed,  if  possible.  It  is  most  satisfactory  to  set 
three  or  four  hens  the  same  day.  When  hatching-time  comes,  usually 
two  hens  can  care  for  all  the  chicks  that  come  from  the  four  nests 
of  eggs.  The  other  two  may  be  continued  on  their  nests  for  another 
term  of  incubation  or  returned  to  the  runs  to  recruit  and  prepare  for 
laying. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a  room  prepared  for  hatching  eggs  by  having  a 
double  row  of  nests  along  the  wall,  with  slat  doors,  in  which  broody  hens 
are  confined  with  eggs  under  them.  The  person  in  charge  must  see  to  it 
that  each  hen  comes  off  every  day  and  returns  to  her  nest.  As  many  as 
fifty  hens  are  set  in  one  room  in  this  way.  The  floor  should  be  covered 
deep  with  dry  earth  or  fine  sand  to  serve  as  a  wallow.  Another  feature  of 
vital  importance  is  to  rid  the  hens  of  all  manner  of  pests,  such  as  mites  or 
lice,  by  the  use  of  insect  powder.  Dalmatian  or  Persian  insect  powder 
is  good.  Rub  plenty  of  it  into  the  feathers  of  the  hen  when  she  goes  to 
the  nest  and  repeat  the  dusting  after  she  has  been  on  her  eggs  for  two 
weeks.  This,  with  her  dust -bath  during  incubation,  will  almost  insure 
against  lice. 

With  so  vast  an  expanse  of  country  as  we  have  in  America,  the  time 
for  hatching  must  be  governed  by  climatic  conditions.  For  exhibition 
fowls,  the  chicks  should  be  hatched  early  enough  to  gain  their  full 
growth  and  plumage  prior  to  the  time  they  are  to  be  shown.     For  winter- 


Incubators   and    Chicken    Rearing 


121 


laying  pullets,  April  hatched  chicks  are  the  best.  If  hatched  in  March 
they  do  quite  as  well.  In  some  parts  of  our  country  it  is  quite  difficult 
to  care  for  young  chicks  in  March,  the  weather  being  so  severe.  Another 
fact  worthy  of  consideration  is  that  the  chick  grows  best  when  the  young 
grass  begins  to  sprout  and  they  can  feed  upon  it.  May-hatched  chicks 
often  do  as  well  as  those  hatched  earlier,  especially  if  special  care  and 
feeding  be  given  them.      Chicks   hatched   later   than  Mav  seldom  make 


An  egg  as  it  appears  twelve  h. 


,  with  a  magnified 


profitable  winter-laying  pullets.  The  late-hatched  chicks  make  good 
market  poultry.  Market  poultry,  for  broilers  or  small  roasters,  may  be 
hatched  at  any  time  and  marketed  as  soon  as  of  suitable  size. 

An  odd  number  of  eggs  is  in  favor  when  placed  under  a  hen  for  incu- 
bation. Not,  as  some  suppose,  because  there  is  "luck  in  odd  numbers," 
but  because  nine,  eleven  or  thirteen  round  up  better  in  a  nest  than  would 
an  even  number.  The  number  of  eggs  "nested"  for  hatching  should  be 
regulated  to  accord  to  time,  place,  season  and  size  of  the  eggs,  or 
whether  placed  under  hens  or  pullets.  No  hen  should  be  given  more 
eggs  to  nest  than  she  can  cover  nicely.  If  she  has  too  many  she  cannot 
properly  cover  them  and  poor  results  will  follow. 

Development  of  the  Chick  within  the  Egg 

In  the  development  of  the  chick  we  can  do  no  better  than  give  Mr. 
Weir's  own  words.     He  says  that  for  many  years  the  henwife  has  divided 


122 


The    Poultry    Book 


after  Ih.  I  eijinnin^  ..i 
:  .jf  the  eiuLryo  ^huk 


eggs  into  three  classes.  If  an  Q.^<g  is  without  a  germ  it  is  called  "clear," 
for  it  does  not  cloud  after  incubation.  When  an  egg  begins  to  hatch  and 
gets  chilled,  or  its  growth  otherwise  arrested  before  the  chick  is  formed, 
then  the  egg  is  "addled,"  becoming  rotten,  and  if  broken  it  has  a  most 

offensive  smell;  this  is  the 
"addled"  egg.  Thirdly,  when 
the  chick  is  well  formed  m  the 
^'g'g  it  is  called  a  "  dead-chick" 
Qgg,  and  is  never  used  in 
the  sportive  way  that  the 
"  addled  "  one  is.  The  knowl- 
edge of  the  progress  of  the 
development  of  the  chick  in 
the  Qg^  is  of  great  use  to  the 
poultry  trade,  as,  on  examina- 
tion of  the  eggs  unhatched 
much  is  learned  as  to  the 
cause  and  time  of  failure.  I 
have  therefore  given  the  whole 
of  Mr.  Swainson's  notes  and  diagrams  from  his  "Habits  of  Birds,"  he  in 
turn  having  borrowed  them  from  Sir  E.  Homes's  "  Comparative  Anatomy"  ; 
therefore  they  can  certainly  be  relied  on  as  being  correct. 

"  In  about  twelve  hours  from  the  time  the  mother  begins  to  sit  the  com- 
mencement of  life  is  perceptible  in  the  germ  {cicatricida) .  What  seems  to 
be  the  head  of  the  chick  appears  joined  to  the  body  and  swims  in  the  sur- 
rounding fluid ;  and  toward  the  close  of  the  first  day  this  apparent  head  is 
seen  bent  back  by  its  enlargement.  So  says  Haller ;  but  Blumenbach  thinks 
this  a  deceptive  appearance,  produced  only  by  the  destined  abode  of  the 
future  chick,  no  trace  of  which,  he  says,  is  perceptible  before  the  second  day, 
when  it  assumes  an  incurvated  form  resembling  a  thread  of  jelly  enlarged 
at  the  extremities,  very  closely  surrounded  by  fluid,  from  which  it  is  scarcely 
distinguishable.  The  first  appearance  of  red  blood  is  perceptible  on  the 
yolk-bag  toward  the  end  of  the  second  day,  a  series  of  points  being  observed 
which  form  the  grooves ;  these  closing  constitute  vessels,  the  trunks  of  which 
become  attached  to  the  chick.  Haller  says  we  can  now  perceive  traces  of 
the  backbone  (vertrebm),  like  small  globules,  disposed  on  two  sides  of  the 
middle  of  the  spine,  the  wings  and  the  blood-vessels  of  the  navel,  distin- 


Incubators    and    Chicken    Rearing 


123 


guished  by  their  dull  color,  also  beginning  to  appear.  The  neck  and  breast 
are  unfolded,  the  head  is  enlarged,  the  outlines  of  the  eyes  and  their  three 
surrounding  coats  now  become  perceptible,  and  the  heart  is  seen  pulsating 
and  the  blood  circulating. 

"  Blumenbach  does  not  mention  his  having  seen  the  heart  before  the 
commencement  of  the  third  day,  when  it  resembles  a  tortuous  canal,  and 
consists  of  three  dilatations  lying  close  together  and  arranged  in  a  triangle, 
one  part  of  which  is  properly  the  right  auricle,  forming  at  this  period  a 
common  auricle,  and  another  is  the  only  ventricle,  which  afterward  be- 
comes the  left  ventricle;  the  third  part  ibiilhns  aorta)  is  considerably  bulged 
out.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  heart  at  this  period  projects  beyond  the 
breast,  and  beats  in  triplets;  first,  on  receiving  into  the  auricle  the  blood 
from  the  veins;  secondly,  on  discharging  this  blood  into  the  arteries;  and 
thirdly,  on  forcing  it  into  the  vessels  of  the  navel — motions  which  will  con- 
tinue for  twenty-four  hours  if  the  embryo  be  taken  out  of  the  egg.  The 
veins  and  arteries  may  now  also  be  seen  branching  over  the  surface  of  the 
brain,  and  the  spinal  marrow  beginning  to  extend  along  the  back ;  or  rather, 
as  has  been  beautifully  shown  l:y  Marcel  de  Serres,*  Tiedeman,t  and  Carus,t 
the  spinal  marrow  itself, 
becoming  enlarged,  forms  the 
brain.  At  this  period  the 
fluid  surrounding  the  fetus 
becomes  more  consistent  and 
less  transparent.  About  the 
same  time  also  the  spine, 
which  was  at  first  extended 
in  a  straight  line,  becomes 
bent,  and  the  joints  of  the 
bone  (vertebra)  become 
distinct.  The  eyes  are 
distinguished  by  their  black 
pigment  and  comparatively 
large  size,  as  they  afterward 
are  in  consequence    of    a    peculiar   slit    in   the   lower   part 


;  It  appears  thirtj  si\ 
magnified 


;  after  the  betrinnm^^  of  incubati* 
of  the  embr)     chii-k 


of   the  iris,  a 


*  "Du  Cerveau,"  Paris,  1S26;  and  "  vSur  le  Cervelet,"  Paris,  1823. 
t  "Geschichte  des  Gehirns  des  Fetus."      4to.      Leipzig. 
t  Gore's  "Comparative  Anatomy." 


124 


The    Poultry    Book 


circumstance  also  observable  in  the  nimble  lizard  (Lacerta  agilis)  and  other 

animals  which  have  no  pupillary  membrane. 

' '  On  the  fourth  day  the  pupil  of  the  eye  can  be  distinguished  as  well  as 

the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors.     In  the  head  are  perceived  five  vesicles, 

filled  with  a  fluid;  and  these 
as  they  enlarge  approach  each 
other,  coalesce,  and  form  the 
brain,  invested  with  its 
memliranes.  The  wings  also 
grow,  the  thighs  begin  to 
appear,  and  the  body  extends 
to  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
length.  Several  other  im- 
portant organs  now  become 
visible,  as  the  stomach,  the 
intestines  and  the  liver.  A 
vascular  membrane  begins  to 
of  incubation,  ivith  a  form    about    the    navel,    and 

tlie   first   appearance  of 

grows  during  the  succeeding 
days  so  rapidly  that  it  covers  almost  the  whole  inner  surface  of  the  shell,  appar- 
ently performing  the  office  of  lungs  in  carrying  on  the  process  of  respiration. 

"  On  the  fifth  day  the  lungs  begin  to  be  formed,  but  cannot,  of  course, 
perform  their  functions,  on  account  of  the  circumambient  fluid.  The  vessels 
of  the  navel  rise  out  of  the  abdomen;  the  heart  is  conflned  in  a  very  thin 
membrane  that  covers  the  chest ;  and  the  muscles  appear  over  the  body  in 
the  form  of  an  unctuous  envelope. 

"  On  the  sixth  day  the  gall-bladder  is  first  perceptible,  and  the  first  indi- 
cation of  voluntary  motion  may  be  remarked.  The  spinal  marrow,  divided 
into  two  parts,  is  extended  along  the  trunk ;  the  liver,  previously  whitish, 
becomes  of  a  darker,  dusky  color.     It  is  now  seven  lines*  in  length. 

"On  the  seventh  day  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  bill;  and  the  skin, 
with  the  germs  of  the  feathers,  becomes  obvious. 

"On  the  eighth  day  the  brain,  the  wings,  thighs  and  legs  have  taken 
nearly  their  ultimate  form ;  but,  according  to  Scarpa,  are  still  soft,  flexible, 
and  pellucid. t     The  two  ventricles  of  the  heart  also  appear  like  two  bubbles, 


An  egg     opened    thirty 
magnified   view  of  the  - 


iix    hours    after     the    beginnini 

nbryo  chick,    in  which  is  shown 

the  principal  blood-vessels 


*  A  line  is  the  twelfth  part  of  a  French,  or  rather  less  than  the  eleventh  of  an  English,  inch. 
f  De  Penit's  "Ossium  Structura  Comment."     4to.      Lips.,  179Q. 


Incubators  and   Chicken    Rearing 


125 


contiguous  and  joined  above  to  the  substance  of  the  auricles ;  while  two  suc- 
cessive motions  are  observed  now  in  them,  as  well  as  in  the  auricles,  which 
resemble  two  separate  hearts. 

"On  the  ninth  day  the  bones  begin  to  be  formed,  appearing  in  the  form 
of  hard  bony  joints,  the  middle  of  the  thigh-  and  leg-bones,  according  to 
Scarpa,  becoming  yellowish.  These  form  the  rudiments  of  the  bony  ring 
of  the  sclerotic,  resembling  a  circular  row  of  the  most  delicate  pearls.  At 
the  same  period  the  marks  of  the  beautiful  yellow  vessels  on  the  yolk-bag 
begin  to  be  visible. 

"  On  the  tenth  day  the  muscles  of  the  wings  are  seen  completely  formed, 
and  the  germs  of  the  feathers  appear  enlarging.  Scarpa  up  to  this  period 
could  observe  nothing  hard,  but  a  yellow  wrinkling  of  beautiful  net- 
work.* 

"On  the  eleventh  day  the  arteries  begin  to  be  distinct,  those  which 
were  previously  at  a  distance  from  the  heart  now  joining  and  cohering  to  it. 
It  was  now  that  Scarpa  first  observed  the  wrinkles  in  the  leg-  and  thigh- 
bones to  become  rough  and  hard,  and  red  spots  to  appear. 

"  On  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  day,  if  the  membrane  {chorion)  envelop- 
ing the  white  of  the  egg  be 
examined  very  cautiously  by 
opening  the  shell,  it  will 
present,  Blumenbach  says, 
without  any  artificial  injec- 
tion, one  of  the  most  splendid 
spectacles  that  occurs  in  the 
whole  organic  creation — the 
most  simple  yet  the  most 
perfect  substitute  for  the 
lungs.  It  exhibits  a  surface 
covered  with  countless  blood 
vessels,  venous  and  arterial, 
branching  through  its  texture. 
The  veins  are  of  bright  sea  rl  "'"  °' "' ''"' 

color,  carrying  oxygenated  blood  to  the  chick ;  while  the  arteries,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  of  a  deep  crimson  or  livid  red,  bringing  the  carbonated 
blood    from   the    body  embryo.     The  functions    of   the  two  are  thus  the 

*  Zoological  Journal,  ii.,  433. 


An  eg-g-  opened  four  days  after  the 


126 


The  Poultry  Book 


reverse  of  those  they  perform  after  the  chick  respires.  From  the  trunks  of 
these  arteries  being  connected  with  the  ihac  vessels,  and  on  account  of  the 
thinness  of  their  coats,  they  furnish  the  best  objects  for  demonstrating  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  a  warm-blooded  animal.     According  to  Scarpa, 

the  thigh-bones,  when 
dried,  now  preserve  their 
shape. 

' '  On  the  fourteenth 
day  the  feathers  appear, 
well  developed ;  and  if 
the  embryo  be  taken  out 
of  the  egg  it  can  open  its 
beak  for  the  purpose  of 
breathing. 

"  During  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  process 
the  yolk  becomes  gradu- 
ally thinner  and  paler 
by  the  texture  of  the 
inner  white ;  while  an  immense  number  of  fringe-like  vessels,  with  flaky 
terminations  of  a  singularly  peculiar  structure,  are  formed  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  yolk-bag,  and  hang  into  the  yolk,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of 
absorbing  it  and  conveying  it  to  the  veins,  where  it  is  assimilated  to  the  blood 
and  applied  to  the  nutrition  of  the  chick.  Blumenbach  persuaded  himself 
of  the  actual  passage  of  the  yolk  from  the  floating  vessel  of  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  bag  into  the  blood-vessels  which  go  to  the  chicken ;  at  least,  he 
could  distinguish  yellow  streaks  in  the  red  blood  contained  in  the  veins.* 

"  On  the  nineteenth  day  the  embryo  can  utter  sounds,  and  may  be 
heard  doing  so  through  the  shell.  It  breaks  and  escapes  from  the  shell 
usually  on  the  twenty-first  day,  but  sometimes  as  early  as  the  eighteenth 
and  at  other  times  not  till  the  twenty-seventh. 

"The  exit  of  the  chick  from  the  shell  appears  to  us  to  be  one  of  the 
most  interesting  processes  of  animated  nature  ever  investigated  by  natural- 
ists. \Ye  are  indebted  to  Reaumur  for  a  most  minutely  accurate  account 
of  this  processt ;  and  recently  j\Ir.  Yarrell  has  given  a  brief  detail  of  his  own 


An  egg  as  it  appears  five  days  after  the 


*  Zoological  Journal,  ii.,  433. 

t  "Oiseaux  Donicstiqujs, "  Mem.  torn,  v: 


Incubators    and   Chicken   Rearing 


127 


observation  upon  several  species  of  birds.  It  is  the  popular  opinion  that  the 
mother-bird  breaks  the  shell  of  the  egg  to  free  the  chick  from  imprisonment 
— an  opinion  which  must  have  originated  from  the  circumstance  that  pieces 
of  the  shell  are  often  broken  and  driven  off  to  some  distance  while  the  mem- 
brane within  remains  unruptured,  which  it  is  supposed  could  not  happen  if 
the  fracture  were  made  on  the  inside  by  the  chick.  But  it  might,  on  the 
same  principle,  be  argued  that  a  wine-glass  covered  with  parchment  could 
not  be  broken  by  the  stroke  of  a  hammer  without  rupturing  the  parchment ; 
for  the  membrane  of  the  egg  is  elastic  and  yielding,  while  the  shell  is  not. 
That  the  chicken,  however,  and  not  the  mother,  performs  this  office,  has 
been  proven  by  direct  observations  which  may  be  readily  verified.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  fact  was  correctly  stated  so  long  ago  as  the 
thirteenth  century,  by  Albertus  Magnus,  the  great  naturalist  of  the  dark 
ages.* 

"  It  might  be  supposed  that  this  task  was  much  above  the  strength  of 
the  yet  feeble  chick,  did  we  not  reflect  that  the  anxiety  it  must  feel  to  escape 
must  add  greatly  to  its  energy,  which  is  further  aided  both  by  its  peculiar 
structure  and  by  the  position  it  assumes.  The  bill  is  still  soft,  indeed,  and 
to  a  careless  observer 
would  seem  ill  fitted  for 
breaking  the  shell;  but, 
superadded  to  the  bill, 
'  upon  the  curved  part  of 
the  upper  mandible,'  to 
use  the  words  of  Mr. 
Yarrell,  'just  above  the 
point  there  will  be  seen 
a  small  homy  scale, 
nearly  circular,  having  at 
its  centre  a  hard  and 
sharp  projecting  point, 
and  by  the  particular 
position  of  the  head  this 
sharp  point  is  brought  into  constant  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the 
shell.'  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  only  use  of  this  horny  point  seems 
to  be  to  break  through  the  shell,  from  which  the  chick  escapes,  and  the 

*  Apud  Aldrovand's  "Ornith,"  iii.,  1S4,  ed.  Francofurti. 


;  days  after  the  heginni 
view  of  the  chii 


■  of  incubation,  with  a  magnified 


128 


The    Poultry    Book 


An  egg  as  it  appear 


.e\tn  ia>s  after  the  beginning   of 
a  ma^nihed  \ic\\  of  the  Lhick 


beak  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air,  it  soon  falls  off,  and  on  the  second  or 
third  day  only  a  light-colored  mark  is  observable  on  the  spot  which  it 
had  occupied.  It  may,  indeed,  be  easily  separated  by  the  thumb-nail 
when  the  chick  comes  forth.     In  pigeons,  and  probably  in  other  birds  which 

do  not  run  about  and  feed  the 
instant  they  are  hatched,  the 
bill-scale  does  not  fall  oft'  for 
more  than  a  week.  ]\Ir.  Yarrell 
thinks  the  hardness  of  the  bill- 
scale  may  be  proportioned  to 
the  thickness  of  the  shell,  from 
its  being  very  prominent,  hard 
and  sharp  in  a  preserv^ed  chick 
of  the  EgA'ptian  goose  (Anser 
gambensis). 

' '  The  position  of  the  chick 
in  the  egg  appears  no  less  un- 
favorable to  its  breaking 
through  the  shell  than  the 
softness  of  the  bill ;  for  it  is  rolled  up  almost  like  a  ball,  the  neck  sloping 
toward  the  belly,  with  the  head  in  the  middle,  and  the  bill  thrust  under 
the  right  wing,  as  in  birds  when  asleep.  The  feet  also  are  bent  up  under 
the  belly,  as  chickens  and  pigeons  sometimes  are  when  trussed  for  the  spit, 
the  claws  being  so  bent  back  that  their  convex  part  almost  touches  the 
head.  The  forepart  of  the  chick,  as  Reaumur  observed,  is  toward  the 
biggest  end;  and  Doctor  Prout  adds  that  it  "is  so  situated  in  the  egg  as, 
by  its  superior  weight  on  one  side,  to  assume  such  a  position  that  the  beak 
shall  be  uppermost."*  It  is  surrounded  by  a  thick,  strong  membrane, 
which  retains  it  in  the  attitude  just  described,  and  is  apparently  unfavor- 
able to  its  requisite  movements.  But  closer  inspection  shows  that  all 
these  circumstances  tend  to  facilitate  rather  than  retard  its  operations  on 
the  shell,  which  it  must  break  before  it  can  escape. 

"The  bill,  indeed,  though  placed  under  the  wing,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
sleeping  bird,  is  thrust  so  far  as  to  project  beyond  it  toward  the  back,  and 
the  head,  by  moving  backward  and  forward  alternately,  causes  the  bill 
to  strike  upon  the  shell,  the  action  being  partly  guided  by  the  wing  and 
*Phil.  Trans,  for  1822. 


Incubators   and    Chicken   Rearing 


129 


the  body.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  head,  compared  with  the  bulk  of 
the  body,  is  very  heavy;  and  it  makes,  together  with  the  neck,  a  load 
which  the  chick,  even  for  several  days  after  its  exclusion,  can  with  diffi- 
culty support.  But  in  the  egg,  let  the  position  be  what  it  may,  the  head  is 
supported  either  by  the  body  or  by  the  wing,  or  by  both  together ;  and  the 
greater  the  size  of  the  head  the  more  efficient,  of  course,  are  the  blows  of 
the  bill.  The  length  of  the  neck  causes  it  to  be  bent  at  this  time,  though 
after  the  first  fourteen  days  it  becomes  nearly  straight ;  but  what  seems  to 
be  done  out  of  necessity  to  procure  room,  is  here,  as  in  many  other  opera- 
tions of  Nature,  the  best  thing  that  could  possibly  have  been  done  out  of 
choice. 

"By  watching  at  the  proper  time,  Reaumur  frequently  heard  chicks 
hammering  upon  the  shell  with  their  beaks;  and  in  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  the  operation  he  could  actually  see  them  at  work,  through  the 
translucent  membrane.  The  result  of  the  first  strokes  is  a  small  crack, 
commonly  situated  nearer  the  larger  than  the  smaller  end  of  the  egg.  When 
this  crack  is  perceptible  the  egg  is  said  to  be  chipped.  The  membrane  is 
seldom  ruptured  in  the  first  instance,  even  when  the  hard  part  of  the 
shell  over  it  is  detached ;  but  in 
one  instance,  while  Reaumur  w^as 
observing  the  operations  of  a 
chick  by  candle-light,  it  was  hard 
at  work  pecking  at  the  membrane 
divested  of  the  shell.  It  did  not 
strike,  however,  but  seemed  as  if 
endeavoring  to  wear  it  out,  and 
make  it  thinner  by  continued 
friction. 

"  The  continued  blows  extend 
the  first  cracks,  and  new  pieces 
of  shell  are  driven  off  almost  in 
the  same  circle,  the  blows  run- 
ning round  nearly  the  whole 
circumference  of  a  circle  which 
never  cuts  the  egg  obhquely,  but  always  directly  across;  yet  the 
bill  all  the  while  remains  under  the  wing  and  always  in  the  same 
position.     In  order  to  accomplish  this,  it  is  indispensable  for  the  chick 


An  egg  as  it  appears  eight  days  after  the  beginning  of  incubation, 
with  a  magnified  view  of  the  chick 


130 


The    Poultry    Book 


I  it  appears  nine  days  after  the  begi 
of  incubation 


to  turn  gradually  round  till  it  has  completed  an  entire  revolution; 
though  this  circumstance  cannot,  in  consequence  of  the  opacity  of  the 
shell,     be     actually     observed.     The     demonstration     of    the     inference, 

however,  is  com- 
pleted by  the 
several  places  at 
which  the  point 
of  the  bill  ap- 
pears, whilst  the 
head  is  kept  con- 
stantly under  the 
same  wing  —  a 
position  so  strictly 
preserved  that  it 
i  s  persisted  i  n 
even  for  some 
time  after  t  h  e 
separation  of  the 

shell  into  two  portions  leaves  the  chick  a  door  almost  as  large  as  the 
dimensions  of  his  prison.  The  revolution  which  the  chick  thus  makes  on 
its  own  body  is  invariably  from  left  to  right,  and  it  is  probably  performed 
by  means  of  the  feet ;  for  the  claws,  on  pressing  the  shell  through 
the  membrane  that  separates  them  from  it,  must  find  in  that  shell  the 
resistance  necessary  to  eftect  the  required  circular  motion.  This 
notion  is  corroborated  by  the  circumstance  of  the  feet  alone  enabling  the 
chick  to  effect  its  exit ;  for  the  wings  and  other  members,  with  the  exception 
of  the  neck  and  bill,  are  incapable  of  any  action  so  long  as  the  chick  is  in 
the  shell. 

"The  fracture  may  be  observed  to  be  broader  in  some  eggs  and  nar- 
rower in  others,  and  even  of  different  breadths  in  the  same  egg;  while  only 
a  few  pieces  are  broken  off  in  some  and  a  great  number  in  others,  the  latter 
case  exhibiting  all  the  regularities  of  a  glass  bottle  broken  by  the  repeated 
gentle  blows  of  a  hammer.  The  eft'ect  required  to  be  produced  is  the  entire 
separation  of  the  two  portions,  first  of  the  hard  shell,  and  then  of  the  mem- 
brane, which  is  torn  by  repeatedly  pecking  it  with  the  bill.  All  chicks  do 
not  succeed  in  producing  this  result  in  the  same  period  of  time,  some  being 
able  to  perform  the  task  within  an  hour,  others  taking  two  or  three  hours, 


Incubators   and   Chicken    Rearing 


131 


while  half  a  day  is  most  usually  employed,  and  some  require  twenty -four 
hours.  'I  have  seen  chicks,'  says  Reaumur,  'continue  at  work  for  two 
days  together.  Some,  again,  work  incessantly,  others  rest  at  intervals 
according  to  their  physical  strength.  I  have  observed  some,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  impatience  to  see  the  light,  begin  to  break  the  shell  a  great 
deal  too  soon ;  for  they  ought,  before  they  make  their  exit,  to  have  within 
them  provision  enough  to  serve  for  twenty-four  hours  without  taking  food, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  unconsumed  portion  of  the  yolk  enters  through  the 
navel.  The  chick,  indeed,  which  comes  out  of  the  shell  before  taking  up 
all  the  yolk,  is  certain  to  droop  and  die  a  few  days  after  it  is  hatched.  The 
help  which  I  have  occasionally  tried  to  give  to  several  of  them  toward  their 
deliverance  has  afforded  me  an  opportunity  of  observing  those  which  had 
begun  to  break  their  shells  before  this  was  accomplished ;  and  I  have  opened 
many  eggs  much  fractured,  in  each  of  which  the  chick  had  as  yet  much  of 
the  yolk  not  absorbed.  Besides,  some  chicks  have  greater  obstacles  to 
overcome  than  others,  since  all  shells  are  not  of  an  equal  thickness,  nor  of  an 
equal  consistence;  and  I  think  it  probable  that  the  same  inequality  takes 
place  in  the  lining 
membrane. 

'"It  is  the 
practice  in  some 
countries  to  dip  the 
eggs  into  warm 
water  at  the  time 
they  are  expected 
to  chip,  on  the 
supposition  that 
the  shell  is  thereby 
rendered  more 
fragile  and  the 
labor  of  the  chick 
lightened.  But 
even  boiling  water 

does  not  render  the  shell  more  fragile;  and  though  the  water  should 
soften  it,  upon  drying  in  the  air  it  would  become  as  hard  as  at  first.'* 
It  is  well  remarked  bv  "Sir.  Yarrell  that  the  shell  is  rendered  more  brittle  by 


The  embryo  chick  taken  from  the  preceding 
egg,  "ith  the  amnion  and  vesicle   removed 


Reaumur,  as  before 


132  The    Poultry    Book 

the  process  of  hatching,  during  which  the  egg  of  the  common  fowl  loses  on 
an  average  eight  grains  a  day,  the  moisture  being  partly  evaporated  and 
partly  absorbed,  and  the  lining  membrane  at  the  same  time  becoming 
partially  separated."* 

First  Food  and  Care  of  the  Chick 

There  is  considerable  controversy  at  present  as  to  the  time  that  should 
intervene  between  the  coming  of  the  chick  from  the  shell  and  its  first 
supply  of  food.  Some  tell  us  that  the  chicks  will  do  better  if  no  food  is 
given  them  until  they  are  seventy-two  hours  old ;  while  others  sav  they 
should  be  offered  food  any  time  after  twelve  hours  from  the  shell.  The 
fact  is,  Nature  provides  the  natural  food  for  the  young  chick  through  the 
yolk  of  the  egg  when  first  it  comes  into  life.  This  will  provide  their 
sustenance  of  life  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours ;  during  this  period  the 
chicks  should  be  left  to  the  hen  or  incubator  to  mother  quietly.  After 
twenty-four  hours,  the  hen,  with  chicks,  should  be  placed  in  a  properly 
constructed  coop  that  will  furnish  comfortable,  warm  quarters  for  them  all. 

Clean,  dry  quarters  and  surroundings  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
successful  growing  of  chicks.  To  do  well  they  must  have  a  dry  footing  at 
all  times.  No  matter  how  wet  or  damp  it  may  be,  if  the  chick  has  a 
sheltered,  dry  runway  it  will  prosper.  Filth  and  dampness  are  most 
destructive  to  young  chicks — and  too  much  coddling  is  not  good  for  them. 
Good,  reasonable  care  is  all  they  need  for  best  results  where  they  are 
properly  cooped  and  guarded  from  filth  and  the  wet  and  chilly  effects 
of  damp,  cold  weather.  Clear,  cold  weather  is  not  so  bad  for  them  as 
the  chilly  wet  or  damp  weather. 

The  proper  method  of  feeding  is  to  provide  for  the  chick  as  soon  as  it 
comes  from  the  nest  or  the  machine ;  give  them  the  opportunity  to  eat  if 
they  will,  and  trust  to  them  to  eat  when  food  is  needed.  For  the  first  meal 
bread-crumbs  are  good ;  hard-boiled  eggs,  shell  and  all,  mashed  fine  and 
mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of  bread-crumbs,  are  much  valued  for  the  first 
day.  Too  much  of  the  egg  and  bread  is  not  good  for  them.  After  the  first 
day,  small  oatmeal  and  bread-crumbs  are  good.  Follow  this  with  oatmeal 
or  rolled  oats;  small  broken  w^heat,  and  bits  of  broken  com  no  larger 
than  the  small  oatmeal,  and  a  little  millet  seed  make  a  good  mixture. 
Do  not  feed  too  much  millet  seed,  as  this  is  not  good  for  them.     There  are  a 

*  Zoological  Journal,  ii.,  436. 


Incubators   and   Chicken   Rearing 


133 


numter  of  chick  foods  made  of  an  assortment  of  small  broken  grains  and 
seeds  that  are  valuable  because  of  the  well-selected  foods  they  contain. 

Grit  is  an 
absolute  neces- 
sity. It  is  the 
digestive  mate- 
rial for  the  chick. 
Small-broken 
egg-shell  will  do 
at  first.  Follow 
this  with  coarse 
sand  or  small 
chick-grit.  I  f 
there  is  plenty 
of  grass  growing 
where  the  chicks 
can  help  them- 
selves, this   will 

furnish  a  full  green-food  supply ; 
must  be  furnished,  grass,  vege- 
lettuce  cut  into  small  bits  will  do. 
can  run  about  for  bugs  and 
animal  food  need  be  given  them ; 
are  not  permitted  to  forage, 
or  meat  meal  should  be  sup- 
chicks  should  be  fed  the  first 
often  as  every  two  hours  from 
dark.  For  the  first  day  or  two 
is  not  too  often.  After  two 
often  will  do.  Warm  milk  makes 
for  them.  If  they  can  be  kept 
the    milk    over   their   down    or 


An  egg  as  it  appears  fourteen  days  after  the 
^'beginning  of  incubalion 


The  same  egg  as  the  preceding,  with  the  external 
half  of  the  vesicle  removed 


but  when  this 
table  tops  and 
If  the  chicks 
worms,  no 
but  when  they 
cut  green  bone 
plied.  Young 
two  weeks  as 
early  dawn  'till 
feed  every  hour 
weeks  old  less 
a    good    drink 


from  smearing 
feathers     it    is 


well    to    use    it     in     this     way,      but      The  emVryo  of  .he  preceding  egg  opened   to      Whcn       thcy 
,  1  1  .    ^         .  ,  show  the  course  of  the  principal   blood-vessels      .       .  ,   -, 

smear  themselves  with  it   they  .hich  go  to  the  veside  and  to  the  areolar  injure    them- 
selves more  than  they  gain  in  its  men.brane  ^^^       Fresh, 
pure,  clean  water  should  always  be  kept  where  they  can  help  themselves. 
The  old  English  method,  as  given  by  Mr.  Weir,  was  as  follows : 


134  The    Poultry    Book 

"The  first  food  generally  given  is  stale  bread-crumbs,  cheese-curds, 
boiled  ground  rice,  broken  rice,  oatmeal  moistened  with  milk,  some  scalded 
rape  seed,  a  little  mustard  seed,  and,  in  two  or  three  days,  more  groimd  oats 
and  milk  and  some  of  the  winnowings  of  wheat,  oats  or  other  farm  seeds. 
The  coops  may  be  put  into  the  kitchen  gardens  (but  not  for  long)  while  the 
chickens  are  young,  cauliflowers  and  cabbages  being  very  favorite  foods  of 
poultry.  If  the  chickens  are  of  a  small  breed  and  of  delicate  habits,  they 
may  be  fed  on  a  kind  of  thick  custard  made  of  flour  (two  parts)  and  oatmeal 
(one  part)  mixed  with  two  or  three  eggs  and  new  milk,  all  stirred  together 
in  a  dish  or  pan  and  put  into  a  slack  oven  until  it  sets  somewhat  firmly; 
after  cooling,  it  will  crumble  and  prove  excellent  food  for  the  first  few  da^^s, 
if  thought  necessary ;   chopped  boiled  eggs  were  seldom  or  never  given. 

"The  newly  hatched  chickens  must  be  fed  as  early  in  the  morning  as 
possible,  at  first  regularly  every  hour,  and  then  two  hours  during  the  day, 
and  a  less  number  of  times  as  they  grow  and  feather.  When  taken  from  the 
hen  they  may  be  fed  on  one-third  oatmeal  or  ground  oats,  with  one-third 
boiled  potatoes  and  one-third  '  sharps,'  all  scalded  and  well  mixed ;  at  night, 
half-boiled  wheat,  barley  or  some  other  grain.  If  running  with  the  adult 
fowls,  a  pan  of  food  should  be  put  under  a  wire  or  wooden  cage  with  the  bars 
placed  sufficiently  wide  apart  to  allow  the  chicks  to  squeeze  through  and 
feed  when  so  inclined,  which  they  will  do  very  frequently ;  this  plan 
prevents  the  old  birds  getting  the  chickens'  food.  Clean  water  in  clean 
■pans  should  be  given  twice  a  day. 

"If  there  is  convenience  for  the  purpose,  the  sexes  should  be  divided 
as  soon  as  they  have  feathered;  and,  if  divided  into  flocks,  they  should  be 
sized,  and  not  numbered  more  than  twenty  in  each,  as  otherwise  the 
strong  are  very  apt,  in  their  endeavor  to  obtain  warmth,  to  smother  the 
weaker  birds." 

For  many  reasons,  the  early  hatched  chicks  are  the  best.  April-  and 
May -hatched  chicks  make  better  winter-laying  pullets  than  do  those  that 
come  later.  For  exhibition,  they  may  be  hatched  an}^  time  after  the  first 
of  the  year  for  the  exhibitions  of  the  following  winter.  The  rearing  of 
poultry  for  household  purposes  is  a  verv  old  custom  and  has  been  a  source 
of  income  and  profit,  more  particularly  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and  chickens  to 
"higglers,"  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  for  market.  The  latter  were 
raised  under  hens  and  turkeys,  though  in  some  instances  artificial  means 
were  used  for  incubation. 


Incubators    and    Chicken    Rearing 


135 


An  egg  as  it  appears  eighteen  days  after  the 
1  eginnir-g  i  f  incubation 


The  Incubator  in  England 

The  incubator  is  by  no  means  a  novelty  in  England.  Mr.  Weir  says 
that  in  16 10  one  Comelous  Drebel,  then  residing  at  Eltham,  among  descrip- 
tions of  other  wonderful  inventions,  declared  that  "By  this  peculiar 
ingenuity  he 
could  at  all 
times  of  the 
year,  even  in 
the  midst 
of  winter, 
hatch  chick- 
e  n  s  and 
ducklings 

without  the  \  ^BlMi-'-^^^^iilKl^^d;^)?/  /  L  \^ 
aid  of  hens 
or  ducks" 
("Notes  and 
Queries,"  ist 
Series,  ii.,  7). 

While  later,  in  his  "System 
J.  W.  (JohnWorlidge),  1681, 
Edition  (1697),  gives  espe- 
to  the  keeping  of  poultry, 
"they  are  kept  to  a  very 
tage  in  the  back  sides  and  at 
of  great  farms ;  and,  as  I  have 
informed,  a  good  farm  hath 
stockt  with  poultr\%  spend- 
crop  upon  them,  and  keep- 
attend  them;  and  that  it 
to  a  ver\^  considerable  im- 
(Here  is  a  poultry'' farm  pay- 

"In  Eg\-pt  and  China 
eggs  in  great  quantities  in 
made  for  that  purpose.  In 
in  this  country^  also  one 
the  brood  of  two  or  three 


The  embryo  chick 
of  the 


The  same  egg  as  the  preceding,  with  part  of  the  vesicle 
removed  to  show  the  embryo  chick  more  clearly 


of  Agriculture," 
and  in  the  4th 
cial  importance 
for  he  says  that ' 
great  advan- 
the  bam  doors 
certainly  been 
been  wholly 
ing  the  whole 
ing  several  to 
hathredounded 
provement." 
ing  its  way.) 
they  yet  hatch 
open  ovens 
several  places 
hen  will  lead 
hens,    so     that 


opened  to  show  the  absorption 
yolk  into  the  body 


136  The  Poultry  Book 

they  be  hatched  near  about  the  same  time ;  therefore  you  may  with  much 
faciHty  hatch  three  or  four  dozen  of  eggs  in  a  lamp-furnace  made  of  a  few 
boards,  only  by  the  heat  of  a  candle  or  a  lamp,  so  that  you  order  them 
that  they  may  hatch  about  the  same  time  as  the  hen  hatches  her  eggs 
that  you  intend  shall  lead  them;  by  which  means  one  hen  may  in  a 
warm  room  lead  many  chickens  and  raise  them  up  with  little  charge 
and  without  the  loss  of  time  of  other  hens." 

Thus  it  appears  that  artificial  incubators  were  in  ordinary  use  in  Eng- 
land in  1681-97.  No  allusion  is  made  to  "rearers,"  though  this  method 
had  not  been  neglected  in  France,  and  it  is  not  until  181 5  that  I  find  the 
following  mention  of  such  appliances  in  the  new  ' '  Family  Receipt  Book' '  of 
that  date,  under  the  heading  of  "A  New  Method  of  Rearing  Poultry  to 
Advantage;  communicated  by  Mrs.  D'Oyley  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  etc." 
"I  keep  a  large  stock  of  poultry,  which  are  regularly  fed  in  the  morning 
upon  steamed  potatoes  chopped  small,  and  at  noon  they  have  barley ;  they 
are  in  high  condition,  tractable,  and  lay  a  very  great  quantity  of  eggs.  In 
the  poultry  yard  is  a  small  building,  similar  to  a  pigeon  cote,  for  the  hens  to 
lay  in,  with  frames  covered  with  net  to  slide  before  each  nest ;  the  house 
is  dry  (this  is  essential) ,  light  and  well  ventilated,  kept  free  from  dirt  by 
having  the  nest  places  and  walls  wdiitew^ashed  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and 
the  floor  covered  once  a  week  with  fresh  ashes.  When  I  wish  to  procure 
chickens,  I  take  the  opportunity  of  setting  many  hens  together,  confining 
each  to  its  respective  nest ;  a  boy  attends  morning  and  evening  to  let  oft"  any 
that  appear  restless  and  to  see  that  they  return  to  their  proper  places. 
When  they  hatch,  the  chickens  are  taken  away  and  a  second  lot  of  eggs 
allowed  them  to  sit  again,  by  which  means  they  produce  as  numerous  a 
brood  as  before.  I  put  the  chickens  into  long  wicker  cages,  placed  against 
a  hot  wall  at  the  back  of  the  kitchen  fire,  and  within  an  artificial  mother 
for  the  chickens  to  run  under ;  they  are  made  of  boards  ten  inches  broad  and 
fifteen  inches  long,  supported  by  two  feet  in  the  front  four  inches  in  height, 
and  by  a  board  at  the  back  two  inches  in  height ;  the  roof  and  back  are 
lined  with  lambs'  skins  dressed  with  wool  upon  them;  the  roof  is  thickly 
perforated  with  holes  for  the  heat  to  escape;  they  are  formed  without 
bottoms,  and  have  a  flannel  curtain  in  front  and  at  the  ends  for  the  chickens 
to  run  under,  which  they  do  apparently  by  instinct."  (See  also  Reaumur's 
"The  Art  of  Hatching  and  Bringing  up  Domestick  Fowls  of  all  Kinds," 
1750,  pages  249-304.)     "The  cages  are  kept  perfectly  dr}^  and  clean  with 


Incubators   and    Chicken   Rearing 


137 


An  egg  as  it  appears  twenty  days  after  the  begin- 
ning of  incubation,  the  vesicle  and  amnion  re- 
moved to  show  the   position    of  the  perfect   chick 


Position  of  the  chick  in  the  egg 


sand  or  moss.  The  above  is  the  proper  size  for  fifty  or  sixty  new-hatched 
chickens,  but  as  they  increase  in  size  they  of  course  require  a  larger  mother. 
When  they  are  a  week  old  the  boy  carries  them  and  their  artificial  mother 
to  the  grass-plot, 
nourishes  them, 
and  keeps  them 
warm  by  placing 
a  long,  narrow  tin 
vessel  filled  with 
hot  water  at  the 
back  of  the  arti- 
ficial mother, 
which  will  retain 
the  heat  for  three 
hours  and  is  then 
renewed  from  the 
steamer.  In  the 
evening  they  are 
driven  into  the 
cages,  and  resume  their  station 
walls,  till  they  are  nearly  three 
and  able  to  go  into  a  small 
priated  for  that  purpose.  The 
nished  with  frames  similar  to 
mother,  placed  round  the  floor, 
perches  conveniently  arranged 
roost  upon."  Mrs.  D'Oyley 
numbers  of  chickens  from  suffo- 
roofs  of  the  artificial  mothers 
sufficiently  ventilated.  This 
then  the  food  proved  un- 
found  that  coarse  barley  meal 
it  was  quite  soft,   mixed  with 

potatoes,  better;    with  this  they  were  fed  alternately,  and 
pellets  of  coarse  wheat  flour  given  occasionally. 

A  few  years  ago  Mr.   Lawther,   of  Tonbridge  Wells,   a  well-known 
fancier  of  Japanese  frizzled  Bantams,  had  his  only  hen  of  the  breed  die  sud- 


Position  of  the  chick  in  the  egg 


at  the  hot 
weeks  old, 
room  appro- 
room  is  fur- 
the  artificial 
and  with 
for  them  to 
lost  1  a  rg  e 
cation,  the 
not  be  ing 
was  remedied-, 
suitable.  She 
steamed  until 
minced  boiled 
as  a  variant 


The    Poultry    Book 


jgnW^' 


denly  \\-hile  sitting  on  fifteen  of  her  own  eggs.  He  could  not  get  another 
broody  hen,  so  improvised  an  incubator.  He  got  a  small  frame — the  lower 
part  of  a  chair — putting  a  somewhat  small  iron  tea-board  on  the  top,  and  on 

this  a  wicker  basket  nearly  filled  with 
cotton  wool,  which  was  hollowed  for 
the  reception  of  the  eggs,  which  were 
then  covered  over  with  more  cotton 
wool.  Under  the  tea-board  was  placed 
a  small  oil  or  paraffin  lamp — the 
eggs  were  turned  and  aired  twice  a 
day  —  and  with  this  contrivance 
Eg^s  fraaurea  by  the  included  chi.k.  ^^_^    Lawtlicr  managcd  to   hatch   and 

afterward  to  rear  thirteen  out  of  the  fifteen  eggs,  and  thus  renewed  his 
strain  of  bantams  which  would  have  been  otherwise  lost. 

Of  late  years  many  kinds  of  incubators  have  been  invented  and  oftered 
for  sale,  all  more  or  less  useful,  and  varying  in  price,  and  the  number  of  eggs 
that  can  be  placed  in  each  machine  varying  from  50  to  200.  Of  these  I  have 
found  "  Hearsons"  very  successful.  On  one  occasion  from  100  hens'  eggs 
92  chickens  were  hatched,  and  from  80  to  85-7  was  not  uncommon.  Of 
course  almost  everything  depended  on  the  vitality  of  the  eggs  inserted.  The 
temperature  used  was  102-3°  Fahr.,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  a  degree 
or  two  more  would  have  been  as  well  if  not  better.  If  an  incubator  is  found 
to  be  a  "necessary"  adjunct  to  the  poultry  yard,  it  is  best  to  place  it  in  a 
ventilated  room  without  draught,  and  entirely  under  the  management  of  one 
person,  and  to  have  it  attended  to  at  certain  times  w^ith  the  utmost  punctu- 
ality. In  mine  the  eggs  were  turned  and  aired  for  fifteen  minutes  every 
morning  at  g  a.m.,  and  again  for  ten  minutes  at  6  p.m.,  and  the  lamp  "seen  to." 
The  eggs  should  be  dated  on  one  side  with  black,  and  on  the  other  with 
red ;  thus  during  the  day  the  red  will  be  uppermost,  and  at  night  the  black, 
by  which  means,  by  a  single  glance,  the  poultryman  can  tell  whether  all  the 
eggs  have  been  properly  turned ;  and  also  by  always  having  the  date  upper- 
most the  time  for  hatching  may  be  watched  to  some  advantage.  It  might 
be  an  improvement  to  put  on  the  egg,  besides  the  date  of  insertion,  that  of 
the  expected  exclusion.  As  to  the  other  rules,  etc.,  it  is  best  to  follow 
exclusively  those  given  by  the  makers  at  the  tim.e  of  the  purchase  of  the 
incubators  and  artificial  mothers. 

As  regards  my  own  experience,  I  have  never  used  the  ordinary  artificial 


Incubators    and   Chicken   Rearing  139 

mothers  until  lately.  Previously,  on  the  chicks  being  hatched  and  "dried 
off,"  they  were  taken  to  one  of  my  vineries,  where  grapes  were  being  "forced" 
by  a  boiler  and  heated  pipes.  Boxes,  with  two  holes  for  ventilation,  lined 
and  padded  with  flannel,  and  having  portions  cut  out  at  the  ends  to  allow 
the  pipes  to  pass  through,  were  placed  over  the  lower  hot-water  pipe. 
Over  the  pipe  was  hung  flannel  with  cuts  or  slips,  which  nearl}^  touched  the 
ground — so,  whether  under,  about  or  clustered  within,  the  chicks  were  warm 
and  the  temperature  even.  In  front  of  the  boxes  were  two  holes  for  ingress 
and  egress  from  the  floor  of  the  vinery,  which  being  a  low  one,  they  ran  about 
at  considerable  liberty.  A  hole  in  the  wall  of  the  vinery  could  be  opened 
when  thought  necessary,  and  the  weather  fine  and  dry,  so  as  to  allow  of 
exercise  in  the  outside  air.  With  regard  to  food,  the  chicks  were  fed  in  the 
usual  way,  with  the  addition  of  chopped  lettuce,  cabbage,  watercress, 
onions  or  chiclaveed,  but  of  all  green  food  they  mostly  preferred  the  tender 
spring  cabbage.  After  a  fortnight,  or  rather  more,  according  to  breed  and 
gro\\^h,  the  chicks  (flocks  of  fifteen  to  twenty)  were  put  into  cucumber 
frames  with  perches  about  four  or  six  inches  high  put  across  the  deepest 
part.  This  plan  kept  them  off  the  damp  ground  and  also  prevented  suffo- 
cation from  crowding.  The  upper  part  of  the  glass  of  the  frame  was  covered 
either  with  a  Russia  mat  or  boards,  which  was  a  shade  by  day  and  warmth  at 
night.  A  hple  w^as  cut  in  the  front  part  of  the  frame  and  a  tin  slide  made 
to  fit,  so  that  the  chicks  could  be  shut  in  when  needful.  These  frames 
were  set  out  on  the  grass,  and  moved  every  two  or  three  days  at  the  least. 
With  this  method  I  had  two  advantages — that  of  early  grape-growing,  which 
proved  profitable,  and  the  easy  and  healthy  rearing  of  my  chickens.  The 
sexes  were  divided,  and  as  a  consequence  there  was  less  fighting  among  the  old 
English  game  chicks.  They 
were  kept  under  the  frames 
at  night,  and  in  wet  weather 
by  day,  until  six  to  eight 
weeks  old;  after  that  they 
were,  if  the  nights  were 
sufficiently  warm,  allowed  to 

Positions  of  the  shell  after  the  escape  of  the  chick 

roost    out    in   the    hedges  or 

apple  trees,  if  they  were  so  inclined,  and  which  they  generally  preferred 
doing;  with  this  treatment  the  birds  were  most  healthy  and  strong,  and 
there  were  very  few  deaths,  and  more  seldom  any  disease.     If  there  was 


140  The  Poultry  Book 

not  room  for  all  the  chicks  incubated  hens  were  used,  and  they  were 
cooped  out  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  rearing  of  chickens  is  still  largely  practised  in  Kent,  Sussex 
and  Surrey,  and  by  some  more  profitably  than  others,  for  the  reason  that 
the  latter  rear  too  long,  continuing  far  into  the  time  when  they  are  almost 
a  drug  in  the  market,*  instead  of  only  "  working"  at  and  for  the  scarce  and 
high-priced  time — that  being  the  end  of  winter  and  early  spring. 

Here  is  an  instance  of  the  latter :  A  young  farmer,  having  much  grass 
land  about  his  house,  with  also  a  barn,  oast-house,  sheds,  etc.,  asked  me  if 
it  would  pay  to  rear  chickens  for  the  market,  he  having  such  good  shelter 
and  runs.  ]\Iy  advice  was  this:  "Get  three  or  four  incubators  holding 
from  150  to  200  eggs.  Have  a  couple  of  hundred  hens  of  the  best  kind, 
such  as  the  white-shanked  Kent,  Sussex  and  Dorkings  and  some  of  the 
properly  proportioned  Langshans,  of  these  last  at  least  half.  In  addition, 
buy  up  all  the  eggs  in  the  neighborhood  from  those  cottagers  and  others 
who  keep  good  table-fowls,  thus  saving  the  expense  of  keeping  the  hens 
when  you  do  not  want  the  eggs — /'.  <?.,  the  cheap  time,  etc.  Raise  some 
thousands  of  early  chickens  by  hatching  the  bought  eggs  and  those  from 
your  own  hens,  either  by  incubators  or  by  sitting  hens.  Leave  the  eggs  laid 
in  the  nests  to  get  the  hens  to  sit  early.  Have  artificial  mothers  placed 
in  your  meadows  and  let  the  chicks  run  about  them;  this  will  help  \^our 
grass  and  manure  it  for  the  hay  time.  Rear  all  your  chicks  so  as  to  have 
them  all  sold  to  the  higglers  by  at  least  the  first  week  in  Alay,  so  that  your 
grass  will  be  then  not  only  well  manured,  but  left  clear  to  grow  into  a  fitness 
for  cutting  and  making  hay.  After  the  chickens  are  all  sold  cull  off  the 
worst  layers  of  the  hens,  which  will  be  about  half,  and  sell  your  incubator 
if  you  can  get  a  good  price,  and  buy  fresh  for  another  year,"  etc.,  etc. 

Mr.  Guest  followed  my  advice  and  reared  more  than  3,000  chickens,  all 
of  which  were  off  the  land  before  the  second  week  in  ]\Iay,  after  which  the 
grass  grew  strongly,  and  his  hay  crop  and  feeding  good ;  and  he  told  me  that. 
raising  and  selling  at  the  dearest  time,  the  early  spring  only,  he  had  realized 
fifty  pounds  a  thousand,  which  about  paid  his  rent.  Had  he  gone  on  hatch- 
ing and  rearing  he  would  have  got  into  the  low-priced  time,  lost  his  grass, 
feed  and  hay,  and  not  gained  on  the  latter  produce. 

When  good-bodied,  well-bred  early  chicks  are  bred  in  any  quantity, 
there  has  never  been,  nor  is  now,  any  difficulty  of  selling,  the  higglers  being 

*  This  could  be  obviated  by  cold  storage. 


Incubators   and    Chicken    Rearing  141 

only  too  glad  to  buy  at  fair  and  generally  very  remunerative  prices ;  but  it  is 
useless  to  try  to  "market"  ill-bred,  ill-shaped,  neglected  and  badly  reared 
and  fed  chickens;  for  the  best  of  almost  everything  there  is  mostly  the 
"ready  sale."  For  my  own  old  five -toed  white-shanked  old  Kent  chicks 
the  higglers  would  give  me  a  shilling  each  more  than  for  nearly  all  those  of 
other  breeders,  excepting  Mr.  Guest  (before  mentioned). 

I  do  not  believe  that  it  pays  to  rear  middle-season  chickens,  nor  to 
keep  hens  to  lay  "summer  eggs"* — the  time  when  they  are  so  abundant 
that  the  market  is  glutted  and  the  prices  accordingly  low.  It  is  only 
winter  eggs  and  the  very  late  and  very  early  birds  that  are  really  profitable. 
Others  may  be  raised  for  the  household,  and  for  such  purpose  summer  layers 
kept,  but  for  commerce  I  do  not  think  it  is  desirable,  unless  cold  storage  can 
be  utilized,  when,  if  so,  the  summer  eggs  will  prove  almost  as  advantageous 
and  lucrative  as  those  of  the  winter. 

Now  that  incubators  are  found  reliable,  both  in  England  and  America, 
poultry  farms  are  established,  where  the  hatching  and  rearing,  fattening  and 
marketing,  of  both  ducklings  and  chickens  has  become  a  business  of  very 
considerable  importance.  Of  course  this  can  only  be  done  by  good  manage- 
ment, fertile  stock,  the  requisite  capital  and  perfect  organization ;  and  such 
can  only  be  arrived  at  with  any  degree  of  certainty  by  small  beginnings, 
keen  observation,  and  careful  attention  to  every  detail,  however  apparently 
small  or  insignificant.  Evidently  it  is  a  growing  industry,  and  will  presently 
become  a  highly  successful  one. 

There  is  another  phase  of  chicken  rearing,  and  I  think  a  useful  one, 
but  as  yet  untried  and  neglected.  It  is  this :  there  are  a  number  of  fanciers 
of  high-class  poultry  that  have  no  room  or  convenience  for  hatching  the 
eggs  of  their  stock.  What  is  wanted,  then,  is  a  reliable  person  to  whom 
the  eggs  may  be  sent,  hatched,  the  chicks  fed  and  tended  until 
they  are  two  or  three  weeks  or  even  a  month  old,  as  required,  at  a  fixed 
payment  of  so  much  per  dozen.  This  would  be  a  boon  to  the  fancier 
class  of  the  community,  and  a  helpful  source  of  income,  perhaps,  to 
ladies  living  in  a  suitable  country.  In  Egypt  and  America  incubation 
of  thig  kind  is  carried  on  to  a  wonderful  extent.  Here  is  an  excerpt 
from  The  Times,  November  22,  1890:  it  conveys  my  meaning,  and  is 
worthy  of  consideration : 

*  Though  this  might  prove  lucrative  if  district  cold-storage  depots  were  provided  either  by 
County  Councils  or  private  enterprij  " 


Dnse. 


142  The   Poultry   Book 

''Artificial  Hitching  in  Egypt. — The  United  States  Consul-General 
in  Egypt,  in  a  report  recently  published,  describes  the  system  of  hatching 
eggs  by  artificial  heat  pursued  in  that  country  from  time  immemorial,  and 
still  in  active  operation.  One  establishment  visited  by  the  Consul-General 
was  wholly  constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks,  mortar  and  earth.  It  was 
70  feet  long,  60  feet  wide  and  16  feet  high,  and  was  provided  with  twelve 
compartments  or  incubators,  each  capable  of  hatching  7,500  eggs,  or  alto- 
gether 90,000  at  one  time.  The  season  begins  in  March  and  lasts  until 
May,  and  three  batches  of  eggs  are  hatched  in  this  time,  each  taking  an 
average  of  three  weeks.  The  fourth  week  is  given  to  removing  the  chickens 
and  preparing  the  incubators  for  a  new  batch  of  eggs.  The  number  of  eggs 
treated  at  this  establishment  in  a  single  season  was  therefore  270,000,  from 
which  234,000  chickens  are  usually  obtained.  The  percentage  of  chickens 
would  be  greater,  but  the  eggs  are  in  some  instances  procured  from  long 
distances  and  in  large  quantities,  and  are  therefore  liable  to  damage.  'The 
price  of  eggs  is  2^d.  per  dozen,  and  chickens  just  issued  from  the  shell  are 
sold  at  7^d.  per  dozen.  The  loss  of  chickens  after  incubation  ft  compara- 
tively small.  The  whole  staff  of  the  place  is  a  man  and  a  boy,  who 
keep  up  the  temperature  to  a  level  of  not  less  than  98°  Fahr.,  arrange 
the  eggs,  move  them  four  or  five  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  look 
after  the  chickens,  and  hand  them  over  to  the  buyers.  The  number  of 
chickens  hatched  in  this  manner  throughout  Egypt  is  estimated  at  75,000,000, 
and    would,  under    ordinary  circumstances,   require    1,500,000  mothers." 

General  Use  of   Incubator   in  America 

Artificial  incubating  and  brooding  has  come  into  general  use  in  America. 
It  is  quite  usual  to  see  the  small  grower  make  use  of  both  incubators  and 
brooders  for  all  their  hatching  and  brooding.  The  fact  that  the  chicks  can 
be  grown  without  any  danger  from  the  insect  pests  by  the  use  of  the  artifi- 
cial methods  has  had  an  influence  in  its  favor.  Then,  again,  with  incu- 
bators and  brooders  one  may  hatch  and  grow  as  many  fowls  as  they  wish 
of  the  non-sitting  varieties  without  having  other  fowls  to  brood  their  chicks ; 
and  one  need  not  delay  the  hatching  season  for  the  lack  of  broody  hens  so 
long  as  they  can  have  ready  at  hand  an  incubator  of  modern  make  and  a 
well-constructed  brooder,  in  which  to  grow  chicks. 

Thousands  of  chicks  and  ducklings  are  hatched  each  year  for 
broilers.      At     Allentown,      Oxford     and     Harrisburg,     Pa.,     there     are 


PRIZE-WINNING   WHITE    DORKING    COCKEREL 


Incubators   and   Chicken    Rearing  145 

located  three  very  large  farms  that  grow  fully  100,000  ducklings  during 
the  year.  At  Sidney,  Ohio,  is  a  plant  that  turns  out  many  thousand 
broilers  per  year.  These  are  only  samples  of  the  many  plants  of  this  kind 
throughout  the  country.  All  such  plants  hatch  their  chicks  and  ducklings 
with  incubators  and  grow  them  in  brooder-houses  built  for  the  purpose. 
These  houses  are  heated  with  hot-water  pipes  that  go  from  a  water-heating 
stove  located  in  a  cellar  or  pit  in  the  centre  of  the  house.  From  this  the 
pipes  run  to  the  right  and  left  to  heat  the  hovers  of  the  brooder-house. 
These  houses  are  warmed,  without  the  hovers,  in  the  same  way  in  cold 
weather,  so  that  the  temperature  may  not  be  chilling  for  the  small  chick. 

There  are  two  systems  for  heating  incubators — one  the  hot-air  system, 
in  which  the  air  is  heated  and  carried  into  the  machine  over  the  eggs  and 
distributed  through  the  egg-chamber  and  carried  out  through  ventilators; 
the  other  is  known  as  the  hot-water  system.  In  this  the  water-tank  is 
placed  above  the  egg-chamber  and  the  water  heated  from  a  lamp,  the  same 
as  the  air  is  heated  for  the  hot-air  system.  The  hot-air  machine  responds 
more  quickly  to  the  effects  of  both  heat  and  cold,  and  is  more  generally 
used  than  is  the  hot- water  system ;  at  the  same  time,  the  hot-water  system 
has  its  enthusiastic  followers  who  will  not  listen  to  any  other  method  of 
heating.  When  properly  constructed,  both  will  do  good  and  satisfactory 
work;  but,  to  be  successful,  the  machine  must  be  of  correct  construction, 
properly  and  well  built,  and  properly  cared  for. 

The  incubator,  when  in  operation,  should  be  placed  where  there  will  be 
a  regular  and  even  temperature  not  lower  than  50°  nor  above  70°  Fahr. 
For  this  reason  incubator  cellars  properly  constructed  are  best,  or  the 
incubators  may  be  placed  in  the  cellar  of  the  house  if  the  cellar  maintains 
these  degrees  of  heat.  When  placed  either  in  the  house,  cellar,  bam  or 
buildings  it  is  best  to  have  a  permit  from  the  insurance  agent  to  run  it 
therein.  A  damp  atmosphere  without  is  by  far  better  than  a  dry  heated 
air.  When  the  air  without  is  too  dry,  the  floor  about  the  incubator  may 
be  moistened  to  advantage.  An  even  temperature  both  within  and 
without  the  machine  is  conducive  to  best  results.  The  most  desirable 
temperature  within  the  machine  ranges  between  102°  and  104°,  according 
to  the  location  of  the  thermometer,  which  should  be  placed  in  each 
machine  as  directed  by  the  makers. 

The  turning  and  airing  of  the  eggs  during  the  three  weeks  of  incubation 
is  of  vital  importance.     The  turning  or  moving  of  the  eggs  during  incuba- 


146  The  Poultry  Book 

tion  is  to  prevent  the  "blastoderm,"  or  germ  skin,  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  inner  membrane  of  the  sheU.  If  all  the  eggs  are  moved  once 
or  twice  a  day  with  the  hands,  this  will  suffice.  They  are  usually  turned 
completely  over  from  one  tray  to  another.  They  miust  be  so  moved 
each  day  as  to  completely  change  their  position,  and  should  be  left 
out  of  the  machine  to  air  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  providing  the 
temperature  of  the  room  is  not  below  65°.  When  lower  than  this,  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  will  do.  The  inchnation  is  not  to  air  the  eggs  as  much  as 
the  hen  will  during  her  time  of  incubation.  AVhen  it  is  cold  she  will  stay 
away  a  short  time  only,  but  when  warmer  the  time  is  prolonged.  The 
desideratum  is  to  turn  and  air  the  eggs  and  not  to  chill  them. 

The  eggs  may  be  tested  for  fertility  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  day, 
according  to  the  ability  of  the  one  in  charge  to  select  the  clear  from  the 
fertile  eggs.  The  clear  or  non-fertile  eggs  may  be  removed.  They  are 
just  as  good  for  cooking  as  eggs  that  have  been  kept  for  a  week 
during  warm  weather  either  in  the  house  or  in  the  store.  Being  m  an 
incubator  for  a  week  will  not  injure  a  clear  egg  as  much  as  will  the 
keeping  of  it  in  the  house  a  week  in  summer.  These  clear  eggs  from 
the  incubator  are  usually  cooked  and  fed  to  the  young  chicks,  or  sold 
as  incubator  eggs  to  the  manufacturing  trade.  Proper  ventilation  and 
moisture  is  of  vital  importance.  This  is,  or  should  be,  fully  provided  in 
all  machines. 

The  system  of  artificial  brooding  covers  the  ground  from  the  small 
individual  indoor  or  outdoor  brooder  for  forty  chicks  to  the  brooder-house 
for  thousands.  The  principle  is  the  same.  When  the  chicks  go  from 
the  nursery  of  the  incubator  to  the  hover  of  the  brooder  the  temperature 
within  or  under  it  should  be  90°.  The  outer  room  of  the  brooder, 
where  the  chick  goes  to  eat  and  run  about,  should  be  70°  at  the  start.  As 
the  heat  under  the  hover  is  lowered,  as  it  should  be  from  week  to  week, 
the  temperature  of  the  outer  runway  should  be  lowered  to  correspond. 
All  brooders,  whether  of  the  indoor  or  outdoor  pattern,  will  do  best  when 
placed  under  shelter  during  early  spring  while  the  weather  is  cool.  Too 
much  heat  or  dampness  is  most  destructive  to  the  young  chicks. 

The  brooding  of  chicks  in  coops  with  hens  may  be  governed  or  success- 
fully accomplished  through  following  the  simple  rule  of  cleanliness, 
proper  feeding  and  protection  from  dampness.  Cleanliness  includes  clean, 
warm  coops  or  boxes  for  the  hens  and  chicks.     These  coops  must  be  so 


Incubators    and    Chicken   Rearing 


147 


constructed  as  to  protect  the  hen  and  chicks  from  wet,  damp  and  cold,  as 
these  are  the  worst  enemies  of  the  chick.  More  losses  come  from  the  result 
of  exposure  to  dampness  and  filth  than  from  all  other  causes.  If  thorough 
sanitary  methods  are  observed  there  will  be  little  chance  for  the  vermin 
which  at  times  work  such  awful  destruction.  When  properly  protected 
there  should  be  little  or  no  trouble  in  the  growing  of  the  brood,  if 
they  are  carefully  fed  and  watered. 


Egg  left  unturned  for  two  months 


From  dya7i'i>tg-s  by  Harrison  IVtir 
Egg  turned  twice  daily 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

James  E.   Rice,   New  York 

UCCESSFUL  feeding  of  poultry  is  both  a  science  and  an  art. 
The  science  is  knowing  the  reason  why.  The  art  is  having 
the  skill  to  do.  The  former  must  be  learned  by  careful 
study  and  observation.  The  latter  can  only  be  acquired 
by  actual  experience — handling  fowls. 

Poultry  feeding  is  not  an  exact  science.  There  is 
much  that  we  do  not  know;  and  much  that  we  think  we  know- 
sometimes,  unfortunately — is  not  so.  But  each  year  adds  more  to  our 
store  of  knowledge;  each  year  by  comparing  experiences  we  are  coming 
to  agree  upon  certain  methods  and  practices,  and  from  facts  thus  obtained 
we  can  lay  down  rules.  But  rules  are  not  always  safe — conditions  so 
often  vary.  It  is  to  discuss  these  rules  and  facts  that  this  series  of  articles 
is  written,  with  the  hope  that  from  them  some  principles  of  feeding  poultry 
may  be  sifted  which  any  one  can  apply  to  varying  conditions.  It  is 
prepared  after  a  good  many  years  of  study  and  experience  in  the  rearing 
and  handling  of  fowls  on  the  part  of  those  who  contribute.  What  is 
here  said,  however,  is  not  given  as  infallible,  nor  is  it  intended  to  lay 
down  fixed  methods  of  procedure.  But  it  is  desired  to  stimulate  those 
who  read  it  to  think  for  themselves — to  compare  it  with  their  own 
experience  and  observation  and  to  thereby  arrive  at  safer  conclusions 
and  firmer  convictions. 

Food  and   Its  Relationship  to  Production 

The  relationship  between  food  and  animal  nutrition  is  largely  a 
question  of  cause  and  effect.  The  food  is  the  cause,  and  the  growth 
or  the  production  is  the  effect.  And  there  is  a  beautiful  harmony 
between  them,  which  is,  that  the  character  of  the  food  determines  the 
kind  of  growth.  If  the  food  is  deficient  in  any  nutrient,  the  growth 
also  will  be  deficient  in  the  same  respect. 

In  order  to  make  this  relationship  clear,  let  us  examine  the  finished 

149 


150  The   Poultry   Book 

product — i.  e.,  the  fully  developed  fowl  or  egg.  The  following  analyses* 
of  the  hen,  pullet  and  capon  include  the  entire  fowl — bones,  feathers, 
blood,  viscera,  etc.  The  analysis  of  the  egg  is  that  of  a  fresh  egg, 
including  the  shell. 

Water  Ash  Protein  Fat 

Hen S5-S  3.8  21.6  17 

Pullet 55.4  3.4  21.2  18 

Capon 41.6  3.7  19.4  33.9 

Fresh  Egg 65.7  12.2  11.4  8.9 

The  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was  found  most 
largely  in  the  bones  and  the  shell  of  the  egg.  The  protein  is  a  general  term 
for  substances  containing  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  albumin — casein,  etc., 
and  is  represented  by  the  lean  meat  and  the  white  of  the  egg  and  a  portion 
of  the  yolk.     The  fat  and  water  we  all  recognize  by  name  and  by  sight. 

It  will  be  interesting  now  to  compare  the  analysis  of  some  of 
our  common  poultry  foods  and  note  their  close  relationship  to  the 
substances  found  in  the  bodies  of  the  fowls  and  in  the  egg — which  is 
simply  an  unorganized  chicken. 

Water  Ash  Protein  Carbohydrates      Fat 

Cora II  1.5  7.9  66.7  4.3 

Peas 10  2.6  16. 8  51.8  .7 

Mangels 89  i.i  i.i  5.4  .1 

Clover  Hay    15  6.2  6.8  35.8  1.7 

Sunflower  Seed 8.6  2,6  12. i  20.8  29 

Meat  Scraps 10.7  4.1  66. 2  .3  i3-7 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  find  all  four  compounds  represented  in  the  raw 
materials — the  foods — that  we  found  in  the  finished  product — the  meat 
and  egg — and  also  one  in  addition,  which  is  called  carbohydrate — a  term 
used  to  represent  a  class  of  food  nutrients  some  of  which  are  starch,  sugar 
and  gums.  They  have  the  same  functions  in  the  body  as  fat  or  oil — 
i.  e.,  to  make  heat  and  form  energy  and  also  to  make  fat,  but  not  being  as 
valuable  as  fat  for  these  purposes  they  are  given  separately.  However, 
they  can  be  grouped  together  by  first  multiplying  the  fat  by  two  and  one- 
quarter  and  adding  it  to  the  carbohydrates.  The  reason  for  multiplying 
by  two  and  one-quarter  is  that  the  fat  is  considered  to  be  two  and  one- 
quarter  times  as  valuable  for  fuel  as  the  carbohydrates.  By  this  multi- 
plying and  adding  they  are  united  on  equal  terms,  and  when  so  grouped  a 
clearer  comparison  can  be  made  between  the  protein  (the  muscle-maker) 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  carbohydrate  (or  heat,  energy,  fat-formers)  on  the 

*  Professor  Wheeler,  Geneva,  X.  Y.,  Experiment  Station. 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry 


151 


other  hand.  A  still  clearer  idea  of  the  proportional  relationship  between 
these  two  great  classes  of  food  nutrients  is  obtained  by  reducing  them  to 
lower  terms — expressed  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  carbohydrates  in  a 
food  for  each  one  pound  of  protein  that  it  contains.  This  relationship  is 
found  by  simply  dividing  the  total  carbohydrates  by  the  protein,  and  is 
expressed  as  one  pound  of  protein  to  whatever  number  of  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates are  shown  in  the  dividend.     This  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio,  or, 


! 


tv^'--r> 


Ks 


u 


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-  —  , 

"~''      N                                                     i 

/    ) 

?' 

r 

> 

i.^ 

■-- 

HEN    AXD    CHICKS 

h 

\ 


to  express  it  in  another  way,  the  nutritive  relationship  of  the  protein  (the 
muscle -makers)  to  the  carbohydrates  (the  fat,  heat,  energy -formers) ;  or, 
for  example,  one  pound  protein  to  9.7  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  which  is  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  com.  To  save  time,  part  of  the  formula  is  left  off, 
because  it  is  generally  understood,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  is  then  expressed, 
for  com :  I  :  7.9.  In  a  food  or  a  ration  where  the  relative  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates to  protein  is  small  it  is  said  to  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio;  where 
the  relative  amount  of  carbohydrates  to  protein  is  large  it  is  said  to  have  a 
wide  nutritive  ratio. 


152  The    Poultry    Book 

From  what  has  been  said  it  must  be  clear  that  there  is  a  close  relationship 
between  the  food  an  animal  eats  and  the  growth  the  animal  can  make  or  the 
product  it  can  produce.  That  such  is  the  case  not  only  has  been  proven  by 
careful  experimentation,  but  it  is  recognized  by  common  observation. 

By  noting  the  wide  variation  in  the  foods  given  in  the  tables  it  will  be 
seen  that  in  corn  there  is  only  7.9  pounds  protein,  while  in  meat  scraps  there 
is  66  per  cent. ;  that  in  sunflower  seed  there  is  20.8  per  cent,  carbohydrates 
and  29  per  cent,  fat,  while  in  corn  there  is  66.7  per  cent,  carbohydrates  and 
only  4.3  per  cent.  fat.  In  the  matter  of  ash  there  is  also  wide  difference, 
as,  for  example,  6.2  per  cent,  ash  in  clover  hay,  19.5  per  cent,  in  meat  meal, 
and  only  1.5  per  cent,  in  corn.  Is  it  not  apparent,  then,  that  a  laying  hen 
requiring  12.2  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter  to  make  an  egg,  and  having 
3.8  per  cent,  in  her  body,  which  must  be  maintained,  if  fed  upon  corn 
alone  must  eventually  have  weak  bones  and  soft-shelled  eggs  ?  Would  it 
not  be  reasonable  to  expect  a  pullet,  whose  body  contains  21.2  per  cent, 
protein  and  whose  egg  contains  1 1.4  per  cent,  protein,  to  make  slow  growth 
and  lay  few  eggs — or  no  eggs  at  all — when  fed  upon  corn,  which  contains 
only  7.9  per  cent,  protein.  To  be  sure,  she  might  eat  enough  food  low 
in  protein  to  get  sufficient  nutrient  to  supply  her  daily  needs.  But  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  one  pound  protein  to  7.9  pounds  carbohydrates. 
What  will  the  pullet  do  with  the  excessive  amount  of  carbohydrates? 
There  are  but  two  things  she  can  do.  She  will  use  what  she  needs  for  heat 
and  energy,  the  rest  w411  either  be  stored  up  as  fat  or  pass  undigested.  If 
this  exclusive  corn -feeding  should  continue,  she  would  get  exceedingly  fat, 
the  supply  of  blood  would  become  deficient,  and  if  this  feeding  should  still 
continue,  the  inability  of  the  fowl  to  renew  broken-down  muscular  tissue 
because  of  lack  of  protein  would  weaken  the  body,  growth  would  cease,  and 
loss  in  weight  would  soon  follow,  which  most  likely  would  result  in  death. 

It  may  seem  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  such  results  could  follow 
from  exclusive  feeding  of  a  food  so  good  and  so  universally  used  as  corn. 
This  statement,  however,  is  not  guesswork,  but  is  based  not  only  upon 
personal  observation  and  experience,  but  also  upon  careful  experiment. 
The  same  result  can  be,  and  frequently  is,  brought  about  by  feeding  several 
kinds  of  food  all  of  which,  like  corn,  are  too  fattening.  Did  you  ever  find 
a  condition  where  many  hens  in  a  flock  would  be  found  dead  without  any 
apparent  cause  except  that  the  body  would  be  filled  almost  solid  with  fat  ? 
That  is  one  evidence  of  feeding  too-fattening  foods. 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry 


153 


With  chickens  the  result  is  not  surplus  fat,  except  for  a  very  short 
time,  because  they  are  active  and  have  not  yet  built  their  framework.  But 
eventuahy  it  results  in  dwarfed,  pinched-up  growth.  What  is  here  said 
is  not  intended  to  be 
an  argument  against 
corn,  or  potatoes,  or 
sunflower  seed,  o  r 
any  other  fattening 
food,  but  it  is  a  plea 
for  a  ration  that  not 
only  contains  these 
foods,  but  also  pro- 
tein foods  like  peas, 
oats,  wheat,  bran, 
middlings,  clover, 
meat,  milk,  and 
the  like. 

How  to  put 
these  foods  together 
so  as  to  supply  the 
protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates in  the 
proper  proportion 
for  the  purpose  in- 
tended   is    called 

ballancing  the  ration.  As  near  as  we  know  now,  the  best  general 
results  with  laying  hens  should  be  had  by  feeding  a  balanced  ration 
containing  one  pound  protein  to  five  or  six  pounds  carbohydrates.  This 
will  differ  somewhat  with  conditions — such  as  breed,  age,  temperature, 
exercise,  etc. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  right  here  that  while  evil  results  will  surely  follow 
any  radically  wrong  feeding  if  long  continued,  nevertheless  the  hen,  like  all 
other  animals,  has  a  wonderful  power  of  adaptability.  If  the  food  should 
be  deficient  in  carbohydrates,  w^hich  often  occurs  where  much  peas,  meat, 
oil  meal,  etc.,  are  fed,  she  apparently  has  the  power  of  using  the  protein  for 
fuel,  or  possibly  even  to  make  fat.  We  find  hens  getting  too  fat  when  fed 
on  a  very  narrow  ration  if  it  happens  to  be  rich,  easy  of  digestion  and 


OLD    KENT    SPECKLED    HEN 


154 


The    Poultry    Book 


abundantly  fed.  The  hen's  power  of  substitution — i.  c,  of  using 
protein  to  take  the  place  of  carbohydrates — does  not  work  both  ways. 
She  does  not  have  the  power  of  using  carbohydrates  to  take  the 
place  of  protein.  That  is  why  hens  usually  suffer  less  when  fed  a 
too  narroii'  ration  than  they  do  when  fed  a  too  wide  ration.  That 
is  why  an  animal  will  stance  to  death  when  fed  abundantly  and  exclu- 
sively on  sugar,  starch  and  fat.  But  evil  results  will  follow  both 
extremes.  If  too  much  protein  is  consumed,  the  blood  will  become 
overcharged,  resulting  in  a  plethoric  condition  which,  if  persisted  in, 
would  overtax  the  kidney  to  throw  off  the  surplus  materials,  and  would 
result  in  debility. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  difference  between  properly  balanced  and 
improperly  balanced  rations,  several  combinations  are  here  given.  The 
reader  can  easily  make  up  others,  according  to  the  foods  he  may  have  or 
can  purchase,  by  consulting  the  feeding  tables. 

It  has  been  found  by  Professor  ^A'heeler,  of  the  Geneva,  X.  ^'.,  Experi- 
ment Station,  that  the  ration  required  per  day  for  each  500  pounds  live 
weight  of  hens  in  full  la34ng,  each  hen  weighing  three  to  five  pounds,  would 
be  approximately  27.5  pounds  dry  matter,  1.5  pounds  ash,  5  pounds  protein, 
18.75  pounds  carbohydrates  and  1.75  pounds  fat,  having  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  i  :  4.6.  This  would  be  an  exceedingly  stimulating  ration.  If  we 
assume  that  this  ciuantit}'  and  proportion  of  nutrients  is  correct,  we  can 
then  compare  it  with  the  rations  that  follow.  To  do  this  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  multiply  the  fat  by  two  and  one-quarter  and  add  it  to  the 
carbohvdrates,  which  would  give  22.7  pounds  total  carboh\-drates  required 
each  day. 


Ration  No. 


Well  Balaxced 


Two  Pounds  Com  Meal  .... 
Two  Pounds  Ground  Oats .  .  . 
Two  Pounds  Wheat  Bran.  .  . 
Two  Pounds  Wheat  Middhngj 
Two  Pounds  Meat  Scraps.  .  .  . 

Eight  Pounds  Corn 

Eight  Pounds  Wheat 

Six  Pounds  Oats 

Four  Pounds  Peas 

Fifteen  Pounds  Mangel  Beets. 

Fifty-one  Pounds 


Cost 
,02500 
03700 
02400 
02500 
04400 
09600 
12240 
10500 
05200 
03750 


Drv 
Matter 

I  .78 

I  .78 

I     76 

I  .76 

I  .  78 


•  °3° 
.  060 

.116 
.076 
.082 


144 

180 

104 
165 


Protein 
158 
1S4 
244 
256 
324 
.632 
.816 

672 
165 


56790       34.07 


Carbo- 
hydrates 

I.52S 

I  ,136 

.  906 
I  .214 

.622 


Xutritiv 
Ratio 


5  .  840 
j-4oS 
2.136 
I  .  560 

24.462 


Manurial 
Value 

.00652 

.00756 

.01236 

.00942 

.03500 

.02608 

.0340S 

.0226S 

.02192 

.00765 

.1S327 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


155 


Ration  No. 

Kind  of  Grain 

Two  Pounds  Corn  Meal 

Two  Pounds  Ground  Barley.  .  .  . 
Two  Pounds  Wheat  IMiddlings .  . 

Two  Pounds  Animal  Meal 

Two  Pounds  Hominy  Chops  .... 

Eight  Pounds  Corn 

Eight  Pounds  Wheat 

Six  Pounds  Barley 

Four  Pounds  Buckwheat 

Fifteen  Pounds  Potatoes 


Too  Wide — Too   Fattening 


Fifty-one  Pounds . 


Cost 
02500 
03000 
02500 
03S00 
02300 
09600 
12240 
0S2S0 
04400 
06000 


Drv 
Matte 


54620 


I 

78 

•  I 

78 

I 

76 

I 

85 

I 

78 

7 

12 

7 

20 

3 

34 

3 

48 

3 

15 

33 

24 

Ash 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Manurial 

Value 

.030 

.15S 

I  .52S 

1:9.7 

.00652 

.048 

•174 

1-384 

1:7.9 

.00576 

.076 

.256 

I  .  214 

1:4.7 

.00942 

•390 

.640 

.  460 

1:0.7 

.00250 

.050 

•150 

I  .410 

1:9.4 

.00632 

.  120 

.632 

6. 112 

1:9.7 

.02608 

•144 

.S16 

5    840 

1:7.2 

.03408 

■  144 

•  522 

4- 152 

1:7.9 

.01728 

.080 

•30S 

2.132 

1:6.9 

.00988 

•  150 

•  135 

2-475 

1:18.3 

.01125 

791    26. 


I5I59 


It  would  take  67.3  pounds  of  Ration  Xo.  2  to  give  the  same  amount 
of  protein  as  51  pounds  of  Ration  Xo.  i — /.  c,  6.3  more  food.  If  the 
fowls  should  eat  this  67  pounds  of  Ration  Xo.  2  they  would  consume 
35.24  pounds  carbohydrates,  which  would  be  11.07  pounds  more  carbo- 
hA^drates  than  they  would  consume  in  eating  Ration  Xo.  i. 


Ration  No. 


Two  Pounds  Buckwheat  Mids. 
Two  Pounds  Ground  Peas  .... 

Two  Pounds  Wheat  Bran 

One  Pound  Gluten  Meal 

One  Pound  Oil  Meal 

One  Pound  Meat  Scraps 

Eight  Pounds  Peas 

Eight  Pounds  Oats 

Ten  Pounds  Wheat 

Fifteen  Pounds  Mangels 


Too  Narrow — Too  Stimulatinc 


Cost 
. 02000 
.02900 
.02400 

.01300 

.01450 
. 02200 
. 10400 
. 14000 


5j 


00 


Dry 
Matter 

I  ■  74 

I  .80 

1.76 

.92 

.91 

.89 

7.20 

7.12 

9  .  00 

1-95 


Ash 
.  096 
.  052 
.116 
.008 

•  °53 
.041 
.208 
.240 
.  iSo 
.165 


Fifty  Potmds. 


55600      33.29 


440 
336 
244 
258 

293 
622 

344 
736 
020 
165 


Carbo 
hydrates 

912 
.068 
.  906 

6;6 

.4S5 


544 
300 
:;6o 


Nutritive    Manurial 


458 


01096 
01236 
00774 
00960 
01  750 
043S4 
03024 
04260 
00765 


[8761 


If  the  hens  should  eat  all  of  Ration  Xo.  3  they  would  consume  1.2 
pounds  more  protsin  than  would  be  needed,  and  at  the  same  time  would  have 
1.84  pounds  less  carbohydrates  than  they  would  require.  The  result  would 
be  that  the  protein  would  be  burned  up  for  fuel  or  transformed  into  fat,  or 
would  be  assimilated,  causing  a  plethoric  condition. 

Assuming  that  Ration  Xo.  i  furnished  protein  and  carbohydrates 
in  the  right  quantity  and  proper  proportion  for  the  best  egg-production, 
then  we  see  that  the  extra  11.07  poimds  of  carbohydrates  would  either  be 
used  to  make  unnecessar\^  fat  or  be  wasted  undigested.     That  is  why  it  is 


156 


The    Poultry    Book 


wasteful  to  feed  too  much  fattening  food,  unless  it  happens  to  be  enough 
cheaper  as  a  source  of  protein  to  afford  to  let  extra  carbohydrates  be  wasted, 
which  sometimes  may  be  the  case.  But  the  feeder  takes  desperate  chances 
of  getting  his  stock  too  fat. 

Prices  oy  Grain  Used  in  Calculating  Cost 


Wheat   

Com 

Oats 

Barley    

Buckwheat    

Peas 

Wheat  Bran 

Wheat  Middlings 

Oil  Meal 

Com  Meal 

Gluten  Meal 

Hoininy  Chop 

Ground  Barley    

Buckwheat  Middlings. 

Pea  Meal    

Ground  Oats 

Meat  Scraps 

Animal  Meal 

Potatoes 

Beets    


G  Cost  of  Rat 

DNS 

;r  Pound        Per loo 

Per  Ton 

01530          I 

53 

30  60 

01200          I 

20 

24  .00 

01750          I 

75 

35  .00 

01380          I 

38 

27  .  60 

OIIOO            I 

10 

22  .00 

01300      I 

30 

26  .  00 

01200       I 

20 

24  .  00 

01250     I 

-5 

25  .00 

01450      I 

4  5 

29  .00 

01250       I 

-5 

25  .00 

00300       I 

30 

26.00 

on  50         I 

IS 

23.00 

01500       I 

50 

30.00 

oiooo        I 

00 

20.00 

01400        I 

40 

28.00 

OIS50        I 

85 

37.00 

02200             2 

20 

44.00 

oiqoo         I 

90 

38  00 

00400 

40 

8  .00 

00250 

25 

5  •  00 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  rations  that  are  richest  in  protein — /.  e., 
No.  I  and  No.  3 — are  the  most  expensive  to  buy.  From  the  standpoint  of 
economy  it  does  not  pay  to  feed  rations  so  deficient  in  carbohydrates  that 
protein  must  be  used  for  fuel.  Ration  No.  3  would  have  been  much 
more  expensive  than  Ration  No.  i  if  cheaper  protein-rich  by-products  had 
not  been  used,  which  leads  us  to  the  importance  at  all  times  of  figuring  both 
the  price  and  the  cornposition  of  each  food  when  making  a  ration. 

Often  many  dollars  may  be  saved  by  watching  the  market  fluctuations. 
Sometimes  corn  is  one  of  the  most  expensive  foods,  at  other  times  oats  are 
too  dear  to  buy  except  in  limited  quantities  for  the  sake  of  variety.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  wheat,  buckwheat  and  other  grains.  All  this  time 
the  composition  of  these  grains  remains  practically  constant.  There- 
fore the  careful  feeder  must  not  only  know  what  food  will  give  him 
the  best  results,  but  he  must  be  ready  at  any  time  to  take  advantage 
of  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  grain  and  substitute  an  expensive  source 
of  food  nutrients  for  a  less  expensive  one. 


The    Feeding    of    Poultry 


157 


The  manurial  value  of  foods  should  be  considered.  True,  it  is  a 
secondary  consideration,  but  if  the  poultry  manure  is  carefully  saved  in  the 
houses  by  the  use  of  absorbents,  and  if  forage  crops  are  grown  in  the  yards, 
so  as  to  make  good  use  of  the  droppings,  considerable  income  will  be 
derived,  which  may  be  used  to  offset  a  portion  of  the  cost  of  the  ration. 
For  example,  in  the  rations  given  the  manurial  value  has  been  determined 
by  allowing  1 5  cents  per  pound  for  the  nitrogen,  5  cents  per  pound  for  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  4^  cents  per  pound  for  the  potash.  A  portion  of 
this  value  would  of  necessity  be  lost,  because  poultry  manure  loses  its 
nitrogen  very  readily  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  and  also  by  leaching. 

Grain  Foods 

While  fowls  require  both  animal  and  vegetable  foods  in  order  to  do 
their  best,  they  are  also  grain  eaters  to  a  much  greater  extent.  Their 
digestive  tract  is  more  especially  adapted  to  the  grinding  and  digesting  of 
cereals,  which  they  relish  almost  without  exception,  from  the  rich  oil-bearing 
sunflower  seed  to  the  starch-grain  corn  and  the  protein -rich  pea. 


Grain  Foods  Arranged  in  Order  of  Total  Digestible  Protein  Content  in  100  Pounds 


Dry 

Matter 

Flaxseed 90 .  S 

Peas 90 

Sunflower  Seed 925 

Wheat 90 

Rye.  , 88 

Wheat  Screenings 88.4 

Oats 89 

Millet 86 

Barley 89 

Corn 89 

Buckwheat 87 

Kaffir  Corn 84  .  8 

Broom  Corn 85.9 

Sorghum  Seed 87.2 

Rice 87.6 


Ash,  or 
Mineral 
Matter 


Protein 
or  Muscle- 
Maker 

20.6 

16.8 

12.1 

10.2 

9.9 

9.8 

9.2 

8.9 

8.7 

7.9 

7.7 

7.8 

7.4 

7 

4,8 


Total 
Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat- 
Formers 

82.3 

53.4 

85.8 

73 

70 

55.9 

56.8 

52.2 

69.2 

76.4 

53.3 

63.2 

54.8 

59.1 

72.9 


Nutritive 

Ratio. 

Prot.-Carb. 


4 

3 

7 

7 

7 

5 

6 
8 
9 
7 
9 

4 
4 


Manurial 
Value 
in  100 
Pounds 


657 
548 
428 
426 

329 
462 
378 
365 
288 
326 
247 


2445 
2814 

1750 


Wheat 


It  may  be  safely  said  that  there  is  no  better  all-round  grain  for  poultry 
than  wheat.  It  has  all  the  qualities  of  attractiveness  of  size,  color,  shape 
and  freedom  from  undesirable  covering  or  shuck.     While  it  is  a  rich  food. 


158 


The    Poultry    Book 


its  nutrients  are  quite  well  balanced — though  perhaps  a  little  more  inclined 
to  be  a  fattening  food  than  one  for  the  production  of  the  greatest 
growth  of  muscle.  While  it  contains  more  protein  and  more  starch  than 
corn,  it  contains  less  oil,  and  on  the  whole  is  not  considered  to  be  quite 
so  valuable  for  fattening,  but  better  for  growth. 

Wheat  seems  to  give  a  lighter  color  to  the  yolk  of  eggs  and  to  fat,  and, 
according  to  meat  packers  in  Chicago,*  also  gives  redder  color  to  the  lean 
meat,  than  does  corn.  The  by-products  of  wheat — the  bran  and  middlings — 
are  more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  is  the  whole  grain.  Tliere- 
fore  it  may  be  wise  many  times  to  sell  wheat  and  buy  bran  and  middhngs. 


MR      F.    G.    S.    RAWSON  S    WHITE     EMBDEN     GOOSE 
(One  of  two)  First  prize  and  cup  at  Birmingham.     Bred  hy  Mr.  Harrison  We 


The  great  demand  for  the  best  grades  of  wheat  for  flour  usually  makes  it 
too  expensive  to  feed  extensively  to  poultry,  but  there  are  grades  of 
wheat  that  are  perfectly  sound  and  wholesome  which,  because  they  are 

*  Henry's  feeding. 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry  159 

mixed  with  other  grain,  or  because  the  kernels  are  shrunken,  can  not  be 
used  to  make  the  best  grades  of  flour,  and  therefore  can  be  purchased  at 
a  reasonable  price — so  low,  in  fact,  that  it  is  often  a  more  profitable  food 
to  buy  than  corn  or  oats. 

Wheat  screenings,  if  they  are  a  good  grade,  can  frequently  be  purchased 
and  fed  to  good  advantage.  A  good  sample  should  contain  more  protein 
than  oats,  barley,  com  or  buckwheat,  and  about  the  same  amount  of 
carbohydrates  as  oats,  peas  or  buckwheat.  Of  course  there  is  always  the 
objection  of  introducing  weed-seed  on  the  farm,  but  a  large  number  of 
the  seeds  are  eaten  with  a  rehsh  by  the  hens. 

"Burnt  wheat"  should  nearly  always  be  shunned  as  one  would  a 
pestilence.  The  same  is  true  of  any  other  kind  cf  musty  or  damaged 
grain.  "Burnt  wheat"  is  only  a  trade  name  for  damaged,  bunted  grain, 
and  is  not,  as  might  be  inferred,  simply  charred  by  fire.  Moreover,  the 
difference  in  price  between  so  called  "burnt  wheat"  and  good  grades  of 
uninjured  "chicken  wheat"  is  so  slight  that  one  should  not  hesitate  an 
instant  in  making  the  choice  for  the  latter. 

Corn 

Corn  is  the  best  relished  by  poultry  of  all  the  grains.  It  possesses 
four  qualities  that  make  it  attractive  to  fowls;  i>  has  a  bright  color;  its 
shape,  size  and  texture  are  such  that  it  can  be  easily  swallowed ;  it  is  free 
from  woody  husk  or  integument;  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  oil  and 
sugar,  which  add  attractiveness  to  flavor  and  ease  of  digestion.  Moreover, 
it  appears  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  appetite  and  fulfil  the  bodily  require- 
ments, at  least  for  the  time.  However,  if  fed  alone  or  in  large  part  it  is 
too  fattening  in  its  nature  to  be  the  most  desirable  food  for  egg -production  or 
for  the  growth  of  lean  meat.  Nevertheless,  it  should  form  a  good  part  of 
all  poultry  rations,  whether  for  young  or  adult,  male  or  female,  layers  or 
sitters.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  United  States,  where  corn  is  "king" 
not  only  because  of  its  goodness  but  because  of  its  cheapness.  From  the 
analysis  it  will  be  seen  that  corn  is  actually  the  richest  in  the  carbohydrate 
nutrients  of  any  of  our  grains  except  sunflower  seed  and  flaxseed,  that 
it  is  a  little  weak  in  protein,  and  decidedly  low  in  the  mineral  nutrients. 
Therefore  it  is  most  valuable  when  fed  to  mature  animals  for  fattening 
purposes.  And,  conversely,  it  should  be  combined  wdth  foods  rich  in 
protein  and  ash  when  fed  to  animals  producing  muscle  or  eggs. 


i6o  The    Poultry    Book 

There  is  not  much  difference  in  actual  feeding  value  between  the  dent 
and  flint  corns,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  analysis.  This  is  also  true  as 
between  white  and  yellow  corn. 

It  is  not  wise  to  feed  corn  and  cob  meal  to  poultry.  The  cob  is  very 
indigestible  and  contains  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  oat  straw.  A 
better  way  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration  is  by  feeding  something  more 
nutritious,  like  wheat  bran  or  cut  clover  hay. 

One  of  the  most  pronounced  and  very  valuable  characteristics  of  com 
is  its  power  to  impart  to  body -fat  and  the  "olk  of  eggs  a  rich  deep-yellow 
color. 

In  his  experience  in  feeding  poultry,  George  O.  Brown,  of  Marvdand, 
has  found  hominy  chop  very  satisfactory.  Regarding  it  he  says:  "It 
is  especially  suitable  for  laying  hens  and  admirable  for  growing  chickens. 
I  would  not  undertake  to  keep  chickens  without  it.  In  Baltimore  it  is 
known  as  hominy  chop,  and  is  sometimes  called  hominy  meal.  It  comes 
from  hominy,  used  as  human  food.  The  hard  part  of  kiln-dried  white 
com  forms  the  hominy,  while  the  hulls,  germ,  a  portion  of  the  gluten, 
and  starch,  constitute  'hominy  chop.'  Recent  analyses  show  hominy 
chop  contains  several  per  cent,  less  water  than  corn  meal,  fully  two  per 
cent,  more  protein,  at  least  ten  per  cent,  greater  feeding  value,  and  four 
per  cent,  more  fat.  Hominy  chop  usually  sells  for  less  than  com  meal. 
It  can  be  understood  how  valuable  it  is  as  a  component  ration  for  poultry 
where  mixed  food  or  mashes  are  used." 

^  Oats 

Good  oats  are  good  food  for  poultry.  Light  oats,  that  are  often  found 
on  the  market,  are  very  undesirable.  This  difference  is  due  to  the  varying 
proportions  of  hull  and  kernel  in  heavy  and  light  oats.  There  is  no  grain 
so  variable  in  weight  per  bushel  as  oats.  Richardson  is  quoted  by  Henny" 
as  saying  that  the  proportion  of  hull  to  kernel  varies  from  twenty  to  forty 
per  cent,  of  the  total  weight,  and  averages  about  thirty  per  cent.  In  the 
warm  lower  country,  oats  are  light,  with  a  large  proportion  of  shuck;  while 
in  northern  sections  or  on  high  altitudes  they  are  solid  and  meaty.  It  will 
pay  to  get  only  the  best,  as  will  be  found  by  noting  the  composition 
of  oat  shucks  and  the  comparative  proportion  in  heavy  and  light  oats. 
It  will  be  found  that  oat  shucks  have  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  oat 
straw,  and  therefore  contain  such  a  large  proportion  of  indigestible  fiber 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


i6i 


(^, 


r 


that  it  is  a  great  tax  upon  the  digestion  of  the  fowls  to  handle  it.     Hens 
know  this  instinctively,  and  will  refuse  to  eat  light  oats  or  the  hulls  if  they 
can  avoid  it.     It  will  be  seen  that  oats  contain  less  protein  than  wheat, 
sunflower  seed  or 
peas,    but     more 
than  barley,  corn  '      . 

or  buckwheat  ; 
more  carbo- 
hydrates than 
peas  or  buck- 
wheat, and  less 
than  barley,  rye, 
wheat  or  corn,  and 
also  more  oil  and 
twice  as  much 
mineral  matter. 
They  should 
usually    form   a 

part  of  the  daily  -       . 

ration  where  the 

"dozing" 

price  will  warrant. 

Practical  feeders  believe  that  the  oat  contains  a  stimulating  virtue 
greater  than  other  grains — which  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  its  protein  or 
carbohydrate  content.  On  this  point  authorities  are  divided.  Some 
chemists  claim  that  an  alkaloid  called  avenin  is  found  in  oats ;  others  dispute 
that  such  a  thing  exists.  While  they  are  discussing  the  question  it  will  be 
well  to  go  right  on  feeding  good  oats  liberally,  both  ground  and  unground. 
Owing  to  the  extensive  adulteration  of  ground  oats  by  incorporating  large 
quantities  of  oat  hulls  and  light  oats,  it  will  be  far  more  satisfactory  to  pur- 
chase the  heavy  oats  and  have  them  ground.  Where  hulled  oats  can  be 
procured  at  a  reasonable  price  they  should  prove  a  most  satisfactory  food, 
especially  for  the  chickens  that  can  not  handle  the  shuck  to  good  advantage. 


Barley 


Barley  stands  intermediate  between  oats  and  peas  as  a  growing  food 
and  com  as  a  fattening  food.  It  contains  a  little  more  protein  than  buck- 
wheat and  com  and  a  little  less  than  oats,  wheat  or  rye.     But  as  it  contains 


i62  The    Poultry    Book 

more  of  the  carbohydrates  than  either  oats,  peas  or  buckwheat  it  becomes 
one  of  the  richest  and  best  of  our  grains  for  poultry.  The  shuck  and  beard 
are  a  little  against  it,  the  shuck  being  estimated  at  about  fifteen  per  cent, 
of  the  total  weight  of  the  grain.  The  great  demand  for  the  best  grades  of 
barley  for  brewing  tends  to  keep  it  out  of  the  market  for  stock  food  by 
forcing  the  price  a  little  high.  Sound  but  discolored  grain  frequently  can  be 
purchased  at  a  reasonable  price.  Avoid  "ground  barley"  as  it  is  sold  upon 
the  market.  It  is  apt  to  be  adulterated  with  various  cheap  fibers,  ground 
corn-cob  and  the  like,  so  that  its  feeding  value  often  is  less  than  one-half 
what  good  ground  barley  should  be.  Hens  relish  barley,  and  it  can  be 
fed  liberally. 

BUCKW^HEAT 

Owing  to  the  demand  for  buckwheat  flower  for  human  food,  the 
price  of  buckwheat  for  stock  food  is  usually  too  high  to  warrant  buying  it, 
except  possibly  in  small  quantities  for  sake  of  variety.  Compared  wdth 
other  grains,  it  cannot  be  considered  a  rich  food.  It  contains  less  protein 
and  less  carbohydrates  than  any  of  the  common  grains,  and  it  is  also  low 
in  mineral  matter,  containing  about  the  same  as  corn,  rye  and  wheat.  The 
shuck,  which  envelops  the  kernel,  is  very  tough  and  almost  w^orthless  as 
food.  Buckwheat  contains  very  little  coloring  matter,  a  fact  very  notice- 
able in  the  white  flesh  and  light -colored  yolks  produced  when  buckwheat  is 
largely  fed.  Hens  like  it  when  they  once  become  accustomed  to  it,  and 
inasmuch  as  it  can  be  grown  quickly  as  a  second  crop  after  grass  or  on  poor 
land  following  a  short  fallow,  it  will  often  pay  to  raise  and  feed  it,  rather 
than  to  go  to  the  expense  and  trouble  of  exchanging  it  for  a  richer  grain. 
It  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  one  pound  protein  to  6.9  of  carbohydrates, 
which  is  right  between  two  of  our  best  poultry  grains — oats,  with  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  i  to  6.2,  and  wheat,  i  to  7.2.  It  may  be  considered  a 
fattening  food  rather  than  one  well  adapted  to  produce  growth. 

Rye 

Rye  is  not  a  success  as  a  poultry  food.  Why,  no  one  seems  able  to 
satisfactorily  explain.  Surely  it  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  its  composi- 
tion. Rye  is  richer  in  protein  than  oats,  barley,  com  or  buckwheat,  and 
richer  in  carbohydrates  than  barley,  oats,  peas  or  buckwheat.  It  does  not 
contain  any  objectionable  hull,  like  oats,  barley  and  buclavheat,  but  still 
hens  do  not  seem  to  like  it.  While  it  is  deficient  in  ash.  it  is  no  more  so 
than  wheat  or  corn,  both  of  which  fowls  relish.     It  is  possible  that  it  con- 


ORDINARY    MODERN    SHOW    HOUDAN 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry 


165 


tains  some  objectionable  flavor  or  medicinal  property.  Perhaps  it  is  only  a 
whim.  However  that  may  be,  it  will  be  just  as  well  to  let  the  hens  have 
their  way,  and  raise  or  buy  grains  that  they  like  better  than  rye. 

By-Products  and  Hay  Arranged  in  the  Order  of  Total  Digestible  Protein  Content 


PER  100  Pounds 


Di 

Matter 

O.  p.  Oil  Meal 91. 

Gluten  Meal 92 

Buckwheat  Middlings 87 

Gluten  Feed 92 

Wheat  Middlings 88 

Wheat  Bran 88 

Alfalfa  Hay 92 

Hominy  Chops 89 

Corn  Bran 90 

Red-Clover  Hay 85 

Oat  Hulls 90 


Ash, or  Bone- 
and  Shell- 
Maker 


Protein, 

Muscle- 
Maker 

29.3 

25.8 

22. 

19.4 

12.8 

12.2 

11. 

7.5 

7.4 

6.8 

1.3 


Total 

Carbo-       Nutritive 
hydrates.  Ratio. 

Fat-Formers  Prot.-Carb. 

48.5 


65.6 
45.6 
63.3 
60.7 
45.3 
42.3 
70.5 
70.1 
69.6 
41.5 


r-7 

2-5 


Manurial 
Value 


Pounds 
960 
774 
256 

471 
618 

431 
316 

335 
329 
"3 


Wheat  Bran 

Wheat  bran,  it  is  safe  to  say,  is  the  safest,  best  and  most  universal 
all-round  natural  by-product  food  which  w^e  have.  It  is  not  as  rich  in  protein, 
to  be  sure,  as  gluten  feed,  gluten  meal,  oil  meal  or  the  best  grades  of  wheat 
or  buckwheat  middlings,  but  it  contains  more  mineral  matter  than  any  of 
the  named  foods,  and  is  the  best  food  to  add  bulk  to  the  ration 
so  that  the  stomach  juices  can  act  readily  upon  it.  Good  bran  is 
richer  in  protein  than  oats,  but  does  not  contain  as  much  starch 
or  oil.  On  the  whole,  good  ground  oats  are  worth  a  little  more, 
pound  for  pound,  for  general  feeding,  than  good  bran.  There  is 
a  great  difference  in  the  quality  of  bran,  owing  to  the  grades  of  wheat  and 
milling  process.  In  the  centre  of  the  wheat  is  the  flour,  which  is  largely 
starch.  The  outside  shell,  the  bran,  contains  a  large  amount  of  protein, 
mineral  matter  and  fiber.  Between  the  flour  and  the  bran  is  a  layer  of 
gluten — a  form  of  protein — some  of  which  gets  in  with  the  good  bran;  a 
little  goes  along  with  the  flour,  but  more  is  found  with  the  middlings,  which, 
as  its  name  implies,  is  from  the  middle — i.  e.,  between  the  bran  and  flour. 
The  difference  in  quality  of  bran,  then,  largely  depends  upon  how  thin  the 
outside  shuck  is  taken  off  and  how  much  of  the  gluten  is  retained. 

The  best  way  to  learn  to  judge  bran  is  to  secure  a  number  of  samples  and 
prices  from  a  wholesale  dealer  and  compare  them.     A  good  test  is  to  chew 


i66 


The    Poultry    Book 


a  handful,  and  if  it  is  fine  and  dry  and  refuses  to  gather,  but  remains 
dry  and  loose,  look  out  for  it.  If  it  chews  up  into  a  nice  "cud,"  it  indi- 
cates gluten.     That  is  the  kind  which  makes  eggs. 

Middlings 
The  great  value  of  the  various  kinds  of  middlings  lies  in  the  large 
amount  of  protein,  largely  in  the  form  of  gluten,  which  they  contain,  and 
to  the  fact  that  when  they  are  mixed  with  such  dry,  crumbly  foods  as  corn 

meal,  gluten 
meal,  wheat 
bran  and  the 
like,  an  adhe- 
sive, sticky 
principle  is 
added  w  h  i  c  h 
w  h  e  n  mixed 
^^'  i  t  h  other 
grains  makes 
them  more 
attractive  t  o 
fowls.  There  is 
a  wide  varia- 
tion    in     the 

quality  of  middlings.  Some  kinds  apparenth^  are  nothing  more  than  ground 
bran  and  floor  sweepings ;  other  grades  are  mostly  flour.  ]\Iiddlings  contain 
very  little  crude  fiber — in  which  respect  they  are  very  like  com  meal  and 
gluten  meal.  AVheat  middlings  is  the  kind  most  largely  used,  but  buck- 
wheat middlings  is  far  richer,  and  in  sections  where  buckwheat  mills 
are  found  the  latter  is  usually  the  more  profitable  kind  to  buy. 

Gluten  Products 

There  are  many  kinds  of  gluten  products.  They  are  all  by-products 
from  the  corn-starch  factories,  and  they  vary  widely  in  composition  and 
price.  It  is  never  safe  to  buy  them  except  upon  a  guaranteed  analysis. 
Gluten  feed  is  the  whole  of  the  corn  by-product.  It  contains  all  the  corn 
except  the  starch,  which  has  been  removed.  Gluten  meal  is  the  same  as 
gluten  feed  less  the  hull  and  germ,  and  therefore  is  more  concentrated. 
Corn    bran    simply    consists    of    corn  hulls  —  the  outside  shuck  from  the 


AZEEL   COCK 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry  167 

kernel  of  corn — and  therefore  is  very  bulky  and  not  very  rich.  Corn  germ 
is  concentrated  and  exceedingly  rich  in  protein  and  oil.  With  all 
gluten  products,  as  with  all  other  by-products,  they  should  only  be 
fed  in  limited  quantities  and  in  connection  with  natural  grains.  Their 
cheapness  often  makes  their  use  desirable. 

Linseed  Meal 

Linseed  meal  is  a  product  of  the  manufacture  of  oil  from  flaxseed. 
While  it  is  extensively  heralded  as  the  best  food  to  feed  to  hens  during  the 
molting  period,  and  while  we  know  that  it  is  the  most  important  ingredient 
in  most  of  the  condimental  foods  and  condition  powders,  it  should  be  fed 
only  in  limited  quantity,  because,  first,  hens  do  not  like  it;  and,  second,  it 
contains  an  excessively  large  amount  of  mucilaginous  material,  making  the 
ration  exceedingly  sticky,  which  causes  the  food  to  wad  up  in  the  crop ;  and, 
third,  it  is  such  a  rich,  concentrated  protein  food  that  there  will  be  danger 
of  over-feeding.  It  contains  more  protein  than  any  other  grain  food 
except  cottonseed  meal.  One  hundred  pounds  of  oil  meal  contains  about 
as  much  protein  as  287  pounds  of  wheat,  318  pounds  of  oats,  370  pounds 
of  corn,  380  pounds  of  buckwheat  or  610  pounds  of  rice.  It  is  rich  also  in 
mineral  matter,  containing  nearly  as  much  ash  as  wheat  bran  or  clover  hay 
and  about  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  most  of  the  grains.  It  is  a  laxative 
food,  and  if  fed  too  liberally  will  cause  bowel  trouble.  Generally  it  will  not 
be  necessary  or  wise  to  feed  more  than  one-fifteenth  by  weight  of  the  total 
ration  fed  per  day. 

Cottonseed  ^Ieal 

While  this  is  one  of  the  richest  and  cheapest  of  all  stock  foods,  it  is  not 

a  safe  one  to  feed  to  poultry  in  large   quantity.     We  do  not  feed  it  at  all. 

Hens  do  not  take  to  it  kindly.     It  is  constipating  in  its  nature. 

Meat   Foods   Arranged   ix   the    Order   of   Total    Digestible  Protein  Content  Per 

no  Pounds 

Dr 

Mat 

Meat  Scraps* 89, 

Meat  Scraps  * 94  , 

Dried  Blood 91 

Dried  Fish 89  . 

Animal  Meal 92  . 

Fresh-cut  Bone 65  . 

Buttermilk 9 . 

Skim  Milk 9  . 

*Both  analyses  are  given  to  show  how  variable  meat  products  really  are. 


ry 
tter 

Ash. or  Bone 
and  Shell- 
Maker 

Protein 

or 
Muscle- 
Maker 

Total 
Carbohy- 
drates.   Fat 
Former 

Nutritive 

Ratio. 
Prot.-Carb. 

Manurial 
Value 
in   100 
Pounds 

•  3 

4-  I 

66.2 

31.1 

0-5 

1-75 

.6 

1-5 

53. 

68. 

I  •  3 

•5 

4-7 

52.3 

5.6 

0.  I 

2.128 

39-2 

44.1 

23.2 

0-5 

1.772 

.7 

19-5 

32. 

23. 

0.7 

.8 

II-5 

18. 

43. 

5-3 

■9 

3.9 

6.5 

3-7 

.088 

•4 

•7 

2.9 

5.9 

4.5 

.103 

i68  The    Poultry    Book 

]\Ieat  Foods 

Hens  are  meat  eaters.  They  are  natural  scavengers — worm  and  insect 
hunters.  It  has  long  been  commonly  believed  that  hens  would  lay  better 
and  that  chickens  would  grow  faster  and  with  greater  profit  when  fed  meat 
in  some  form.  That  has  now  been  quite  satisfactorily  proven  by  Professor 
Wheeler,  of  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station.  From  his  experi- 
ments it  would  seem  that  we  are  justified  in  thinking  that  protein  in  meat 
is  more  valuable  than  protein  in  any  other  form  of  food,  and  that  for 
fowls  meat  is  a  necessity.  In  fact,  I  believe  that  meat  in  some  form  is  the 
most  important  one  food  that  can  be  fed  to  stimulate  the  ovaries  into 
activity  and  to  increase  the  secretion  of  albumen.  And  because  of  this 
fact  it  must  be  fed  judiciously,  particularly  to  young  pullets  that  we  do 
not  care  to  force  into  premature  laying,  or  to  hens  in  which  for  any  reason 
we  desire  to  retard  egg  production.  The  amount  of  meat  that  it  is  safe 
to  feed  will  depend  entirely  upon  its  kind  and  composition.  The  accom- 
panying tables  show  how  the  various  meat  products  vary  in  this  respect. 
The  prepared  meat  products  in  the  market  should  never  be  bought  except 
upon  a  guaranteed  analysis.  They  vary  in  their  protein  content  from 
twenty-five  per  cent,  to  sixty-five  per  cent.,  and  some  brands  of  meat 
scraps  and  dried  blood  are  even  richer  in  protein. 

There  is  also  a  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  fat  which  they  contain. 
And  the  same  may  be  said  as  to  the  mineral  elements.  Generally  it  may  be 
said  that  the  meals  have  less  protein  and  less  fat  but  more  mineral  matter 
than  the  meat  scraps.  It  should  be  remembered  that  while  the  mineral 
matter  which  represents  bone  is  valuable  as  a  source  of  lime  for  the  egg- 
shell and  to  make  bone,  it  might  be  purchased  for  much  less  in  cracked 
oyster  shell  at  $io  per  ton  than  in  the  meat  meals  at  $40  to  $50  per  ton ;  and 
that  fat,  while  having  a  fuel  and  fattening  value,  can  be  bought  for  less 
money  in  other  forms.  The  protein  is  the  element  that  we  are  particularly 
after  when  we  buy  meat  in  any  form,  and  upon  its  protein  content  we 
should  for  the  most  part  base  its  value.  Fat  and  mineral  matter  we  usually 
get  in  sufficient  quantity  in  most  foods  as  we  buy  them. 

If  we  compare  meat  scraps  that  contain  sixty  per  cent,  protein  at  S45 
per  ton  with  meat  meal  containing  thirty  per  cent,  protein,  and  green  cut 
bone  with  fourteen  per  cent,  protein,  and  skim  milk  containing  3.5  per 
cent,  protein,  then  the  meat  meal  would  be  worth  $22.50  per  ton,  green 
cut  bone  $15  per  ton,  and  skim  milk  $2.60  per  ton.     In  this  reckoning  we 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry 


169 


should  take  into  account  the  palatabihty  of  the  various  forms  of  meat.  It 
would  seem  that  in  this  respect  the  skim  milk  and  green  cut  bone  would 
have  the  advantage  over  the  prepared  meals  and  scraps,  provided  the  latter 
were  fresh  and 
wholesome,  which 
is  not  always  the 
case,  particularly 
during  hot  weather. 
It  must  also  be  said 
that  frequently  the 
meat  meal  and 
scraps  are  tainted 
and  absolutely  un- 
fit to  feed.  The 
same  brand  varies 
in  this  respect. 
Meat    foods    must 

be  kept  dry.  If  they  get  wet  they  heat  and  ferment.  Sometimes  it  would 
seem  that  the  trouble  is  caused  by  the  use  of  undesirable  slaughter-house 
refuse.  Any  meal  that  hens  will  not  eat  with  a  relish  when  they  once 
become  accustomed  to  it  should  not  be  fed.  A  good  way  to  test  the 
wholesomeness  of  any  food  is  to  pour  boiling  water  upon  it.  If  the 
odor  arising  immediately  therefrom  is  musty  or  putrid,  shun  it. 


RED-SPANGLED    DORKING    COCKEREL 
months  old.     Weight  (ready  for  cooking),  5%  lbs.     Bred  by  Mr.  Har 


Vegetable  Foods  Arranged  in  the  Order  of  Their  Total  Digestible 

IN  100  Pounds 

Ash, or  Protein,     Total  Carbo- 

Dry  Bone-  and     or  Muscle-    hydrates, or 

Matter      Shell-Maker      Makers      Fat-Formers 

Red  Clover,  Green 29.  2.1  2.9  16.4 

Cabbage 15.  1.4  1.8  9.1 

Rape 14.  2.  1.5  8.6 

Mangel  Beets 13.  i.i  1.1  10.4 

Turnips 9.5              .8  1.  7.65 

Potatoes 21.  I.  .9  16.5 


Protein 

Con 

TENT 

Nutritive 

Ratio. 
Prot.-Carb. 

Manurial 
Value  in 
100  Pounds 

5-6 

.107 

5-1 

.082 

5-4 

.092 

5-1 

.051 

7  •  7 

.050 

1S.3 

•075 

Vegetable   Foods  and   Feeding 

Fowds  are  vegetable  eaters.     They  are  natural  grazers,  though  not  to 

the  same  extent  as  ducks  and  geese.     We  surely  do  not  fully  appreciate 

the  part  that  good  pasture  plays  in  the  feeding  and  good  health  of  poultry. 

Greater  attention  should  be  paid  to  it.     At  present,  most  flocks  that  do  not 


170  The    Poultry    Book 

have  the  freedom  of  the  farm  are  kept  in  yards  much  too  small  and  which 
in  many  instances  are  devoid  of  all  forms  of  vegetation.  Not  only  is  this 
wrong  from  the  standpoint  of  economy,  but  it  is  dangerous  from  the 
hygienic  point  of  view. 

Poultry  yards  should  be  made  to  pay  a  revenue  in  the  green  forage  that 
they  grow,  which  will  at  the  same  time  purify  the  soil  by  transforming  what 
would  have  become  filth  and  dangerous  impurity  into  wholesome  food 
product.  This  may  be  brought  about  in  two  ways.  The  runs  may  be 
utiHzed  to  grow  forage  crops,  or  they  may  be  seeded  down  to  permanent 
pasture.  The  former  has  the  advantage  of  aerating  the  soil  and  letting  in 
the  sunlight  to  purify  it.  The  permanent  pasture  has  the  disadvantage  that 
it  will  "run  out."  This  is  particularly  true  in  spots  near  the  buildings. 
Most  kinds  of  poultry  graze  too  close  on  portions  of  pasture,  and  let  the 
other  parts  go  to  seed,  where  the  runs  are  large. 

Rye  is  a  good  crop  for  very  late  fall  and  early  spring  forage,  because  it 
will  germinate  and  grow  in  very  cold  weather  and  will  live  through  the 
winter.  Its  weakness  is  that  it  gets  tough  \'ery  quickly  when  warm 
weather  comes. 

Oats  and  peas  sown  together  very  thinly,  with  a  liberal  seeding  of 
red  clover  and  a  very  Httle  rape,  make  a  good  combination.  The  oats  and 
peas  furnish  a  rapid  growth  of  green  food,  a  good  deal  of  which  will  get 
tramped  down  and  some  will  go  to  seed,  but  it  will  serve  to  protect  the 
clover  and  rape,  which  will  make  good  food  for  late  summer  and  fall  pas- 
turage. Three  pecks  of  oats,  two  pecks  of  peas,  one  pint  of  rape  seed  and 
five  quarts  of  red  clover  seed  will  be  a  good  proportion  for  seeding.  The 
oats  and  peas  should  first  be  harrowed  in  deeply,  then  the  clover  and  rape 
seed  should  be  m.ixed  and  sown,  then  lightly  scratched  in  with  a  weeder. 

This  system  can  best  be  employed  by  having  double  yards,  one  of 
which  can  furnish  forage  while  the  other  is  getting  started.  With  a  single 
range,  if  it  is  large,  a  good  stand  should  be  obtained  except  near  the  houses. 
But  the  hens  should  not  be  turned  on  until  after  the  grain  has  come  up. 

Green  food  is  equally  important  for  winter  feeding.  It  should  be  fed  both 
raw  and  cooked.  The  best  vegetable  for  feeding  raw,  so  far  as  our  experi- 
ence goes,  is  the  mangel  beet.  It  is  sweet,  tender,  juicy  and  nutritious,  and 
does  not  impart  any  objectionable  flavor  or  odor  to  the  eggs  or  flesh  as  some 
other  vegetables,  like  onions  and  cabbage,  are  apt  to  do  if  fed  in  too  large 
quantity.     Cabbage  is  very  much  relished,  and  may  be  fed  for  variety. 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry  lyt 

Turnips  are  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  as  cooked  vegetables.  The 
objectionable  flavor  is  largely  driven  off  by  the  cooking  and  the  fowls  have 
an  especial  fondness  for  them.  They  are  apt  to  be  a  little  tough  and  strong 
when  fed  raw.  Other  factors  in  their  favor  is  that  they  can  be  grown  so 
cheaply.  We  sow  them  as  a  catch  crop  after  early  potatoes,  or  in  the  com 
at  the  last  cultivation.  Clover  is  sown  with  the  turnip  to  seed  the  ground, 
so  that  about  all  the  turnips  cost  is  the  labor  of  harvesting. 

Little  potatoes  can  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Like  turnips,  they  are 
much  improved  by  boiling.  The  two  go  well  together.  Even  a  very  few 
onions  will  be  found  valuable  to  add  variety  and  palatability  to  the  ration. 
The  onion  has  splendid  medicinal  qualities,  and  can  be  fed  quite  liberally  to 
young  chickens  with  excellent  results.  The  table  shows  the  comparative 
value  of  the  most  important  green  foods.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  arranged 
in  the  order  of  richness  in  protein  they  will  be  red  clover  (green),  cabbage, 
rape,  mangels,  turnips,  potatoes.  But  when  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
richness  in  carbohydrates  they  will  be  potatoes,  red  clover  (green),  mangels, 
cabbage,  rape,  turnips.  And  when  arranged  in  order  of  richness  in  mineral 
nutrients  they  will  be  red  clover  (green),  rape,  cabbage,  mangels,  potatoes, 
turnips.  From  these  comparisons  it  will  be  noted  that,  so  far  as  protein 
and  mineral  nutrients  are  concerned,  red  clover  (green),  rape,  cabbage  and 
mangels  head  the  list,  and  that  for  carbohydrates,  potatoes,  red  clover 
and  mangels  are  in  the  lead. 

Grit  and  Mineral  Matter 

Grit  is  to  the  fowl  what  teeth  are  to  the  ruminating  animal — a  necessity. 
They  must  have  it  if  rapid  and  perfect  digestion  is  to  take  place.  It  is 
reasonable  to  believe  that  fowls  will  get  more  value  out  of  food  when  they 
are  provided  with  grinding  material.  Therefore  it  will  be  economy  to  pro- 
vide it.  Hard,  irregular  grit  is  best,  because  the  action  of  the  gizzard  in 
grinding  is  a  crushing  process.  When  the  particles  of  grit  become  round 
and  smooth  they  are  expelled  and  other  grit  is  eaten  to  take  its  place.  To 
make  sure  that  fowls  have  enough  grit  it  should  be  kept  where  they  can 
help  themselves  at  w411.  An  incidental  value  of  grit,  though  a  very  impor- 
tant one,  is  the  mineral  nutrients  which  it  contains.  The  various  forms  of 
grit  on  the  market  vary  largely  in  this  respect,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  rock  from  which  they  are  made.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  cracked 
oyster  shell  or  clean  sea  shells  are  particularly  valuable  in  this  respect. 


172 


The    Poultry    Book 


OLD    KENT    AND    SUSSEX    BLACK-BREASTED    RED 


From  a  switch  by  Ha 
SARX-DOOR    COCK 


They  are  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  and  are  so  easily  broken  up  by 
the  action  of  the  gizzard  that  the  mineral  matter  seems  to  be  almost 
immediately  available.  They  will  have  an  effect  on  the  hardness  of  the 
egg-shells  within  a  few  days.  The  reason  for  this  quick  transformation 
will  be  apparent  by  noting  the  great  similarity  in  composition  between 
egg-shells  and  oyster  shells. 

The  most  potent  cause  of  hens  eating  their  eggs  is  a  lack  of  the  mineral 
elements  in  their  system  to  make  the  egg-shell.  When  their  bodies  lack 
this  element  they  naturally  crave  it,  and  are  ravenously  hungry  for  it. 
Their  instinct  tells  them  that  the  egg-shell  contains  the  material  to  satisfy 
this  craving;  they  therefore  eat  it.     After  learning  what  is  inside  the  egg, 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry  173 

they  know  a  good  thing  when  they  see  it,  and  may  then  develop  the  egg- 
eating  habit.  Several  times  I  have  seen  whole  flocks  of  hens,  where  nearly 
all  of  them  seemed  to  be  eating  their  eggs,  cured  by  simply  providing 
sufficient  mineral  matter  in  the  form  of  cracked  oyster  shells,  mortar, 
or  the  like. 

When  hens  lay  but  few  eggs,  the  grain,  meat  and  vegetables  will  usually 
furnish  sufficient  mineral  matter.  But  for  hens  that  lay  almost  continu- 
ously for  long  periods  additional  mineral  matter  must  be  provided. 

The  various  kinds  of  sea  shells  not  only  contain  the  mineral  foods,  but 
they  apparently  have  a  salty  flavor  which  the  fowls  relish.  This,  together 
with  hunger  for  grinding  material,  will  cause  fowls  that  have  been  long 
deprived  of  grit  to  eat  it  as  freely  and  as  ravenously  as  they  would  grain. 
This  need  of  mineral  matter  of  the  right  kind  and  proper  proportion  undoubt- 
edly has  much  to  do  with  the  bad  results  with  growing  chickens,  or  hens 
kept  too  long  away  from  the  soil.  In  the  sod  soil  in  which  they  delight 
it  is  possible  that  they  flnd  the  one  thing  which  the  system  craves  and 
which  our  foods  lack.  This  lack  of  mineral  constituents  is  manifestly  one 
of  the  dangers  of  too  liberal  feeding  of  some  of  the  grain  by-products 
which  in  their  manufacture  have  had  much  of  the  ash  removed. 

CONDIMENTAL    FoODS 

Salt  assists  in  the  digestion  of  foods,  particularly  those  that  are  exces- 
sively rich  in  protein.  Nearly  every  food  in  its  natural  condition  contains 
some  salt — enough,  usually,  for  the  needs  of  the  fowls.  When  fowls  are 
being  fed  a  forcing  ration  it  is  well  to  feed  a  little  salt  to  season  it  and 
make  it  palatable.  It  will  be  safe  to  f^ed  one-half  pound  of  salt  to 
one  hundred  pounds  of  food. 

It  was  found  by  Professor  Wheeler  that  a  much  larger  amount  of 
salt  could  be  fed  without  injury,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  it  would  be 
advisable  to  feed  that  amount.  Whether  or  not  evil  results  will  follow 
the  eating  of  salt  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  salt  and  how  it  is  fed. 
When  eaten  in  too  large  quantities  it  acts  as  a  poison  and  will  cause 
death.  Fowls  that  have  died  from  eating  salt  have  usually  mistaken 
coarse  salt  for  grit  and  in  that  way  have  eaten  too  much. 

Charcoal  has  a  great  absorbtive  power  for  gases,  impurities  and  acids. 
It  acts  as  a  corrective  when  the  stomach  is  sour  and  digestion  has  been 
impaired — and  is  not  a  food.     Sometimes  fowls  eat  it  freely,  at  other  times 


174  The    Poultry    Book 

they  will  not  touch  it.     Let  the  fowls  be  the  judge;  they  seem  to  under- 
stand when  it  is  required.     Keep  it  where  they  can  help  themselves. 

Red  pepper  is  a  stimulant.  It  acts  as  a  tonic.  It  surely  warms  up 
and  tones  up  the  system.  Like  all  other  stimulants,  it  should  be  fed  rarely 
and  moderately  or  evil  results  will  follow.  To  fowls  having  colds  or 
roup,  or  for  stimulating  hens  into  egg-production,  a  little  red  pepper 
is  desirable. 

Water 

Water  is  as  necessary  to  digestion  as  food  itself.  Many  foods  contain 
enough  water  for  their  own  digestion.  This  is  true  of  vegetables.  But 
with  the  grains  and  dry  meat  products,  particularly  those  that  are  exces- 
sively rich  in  protein,  much  additional  water  will  be  required  for  perfect 
digestion.  Water  is  needed  in  the  blood  to  float  the  solids  and  in  the 
muscles  and  bones  to  carry  on  nutrition  and  gro\\i:h. 

It  is  the  common  carrier  of  the  body,  and  is  largely  used  in  all  the 
secretions.  The  egg,  which  is  a  combination  of  three  separate  and 
distinct  secretions,  contains  a  large  amount  of  water,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  analyses. 

Professor  Wheeler  has  estimated  that  one  dozen  eggs  contain  one  pint 
of  water.  It  must  be  apparent  from  either  a  practical  or  a  theoretical  point 
of  view  that  hens  must  have  water  other  than  that  found  in  their  food  in 
order  to  keep  in  perfect  health. 

jMany  a  flock  of  fowls  that  are  otherwise  quite  well  cared  for  go  about 
with  dark  combs  and  dull  feathers  because  they  do  not  have  enough  water 
to  carry  on  digestion  and  supply  their  bodily  wants.  Common  observation 
proves  this  to  be  true.  A  flock  of  fifty  hens  in  good  laying  will  require  four  to 
six  quarts  of  water  a  day.  This  should  be  kept  where  they  can  help  them- 
selves whenever  they  desire  it.  They  can  not  fill  up,  like  a  cow  or  horse, 
and  go  all  day.  They  have  no  place  to  carry  water  in  quantity.  They 
take  a  little  water  at  a  time,  whenever  they  need  it  to  moisten  the  food  in 
their  crop  so  that  it  may  soften  up  and  pass  on  freely  to  the  gizzard  to  be 
ground.  Hens  usually  drink  before  going  to  roost  and  the  first  thing  in 
the  morning.  The  only  way  to  make  sure  that  they  always  have  enough 
water  is  to  supply  it  in  a  receptacle  so  large  that  it  will  never  be  empty. 

It  would  naturally  follow  that  pure  water  is  of  as  much  importance  as 
wholesome  food.  Disease  or  disorder  is  frequently  the  direct  result  of 
fowls  drinking  dirty,  stagnant  water,  particularly  if  it  is  their  own  filth  that 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


175 


is  the  source  of  contamination.  Unfortunately,  the  hen  is  not  the  most 
cleanly  bird,  which  makes  it  doubly  important  to  take  special  care  to 
keep  things  clean. 

During  very  cold  weather  it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  warm  water  in 
the  morning.  It  helps  to  warm  the  fowls,  and  does  not  act  as  an  emetic,  as 
it  does  with  most  animals,  because  they  drink  so  little  at  a  time.  If  fowls 
are  allowed  to  become  abnormally  thirsty  they  may  drink  too  freely,  which 
is  apt  to  result  quickly  in  looseness  of  bowels,  which  is  another  reason  why 
water  should  be  kept  always  on  hand. 


Palatability 

Aside  from  their  actual  composition,  foods  have  a  value  due  tQ»  their 
flavor  and  medicinal  qualities,  which  act  beneficially  or  injuriously  upon 
animals. 

This  perhaps  accounts  for  the  fact  that  hens  prefer  some  foods  to  others 
of  similar  composition  even  to  the  extent  of  refusing  to  eat  certain  kinds 
of  grain.  And  strange  to  say,  the  foods  they  like  the  best  may  not  always 
be  the  ones  that  will  give  the  best  results  in  egg -production.  For  example  : 
they  like  com  perhaps  better  than  other  grains,  but  if  allowed  to  eat 
it  too  freely  will  become  too  fat  to  lay  well,  and  in  the  end  will  suffer 
in  health. 
They  do  not 
like  rs^e  and 
they  do  like 
wheat,  yet 
the  two  are 
quite  similar 
in  composi- 
t  ion  and 
appearance. 

A  pref- 
erence for 
certain 
grains     is 

often  a  matter  of  habit.  If  fowls  have  been  accustomed  to  certain  kinds 
of  grain,  they  do  not  take  kindly  at  first  to  other  kinds.  Hens  that  have 
never  eaten  peas  or  buck-^vheat  will  be  pretty  sure  to  refuse  them  at  first. 


GAME    AND    DORKING   COCKEREL 
Weight,  7J^  lbs.;  trussed,  $%  lbs. 


176  The    Poultry    Book 

The  same  is  true  of  corn  and  all  other  grains.  However,  they  gradually 
become  accustomed  to  a  new  food,  and  if  it  agrees  with  them  will  soon  learn 
to  eat  it  with  avidity. 

It  is  important  to  feed  only  those  foods  that  fowls  really  like  when  they 
once  become  familiar  with  them.  Palatability  has  much  to  do  with  diges- 
tion. Experiments  with  other  animals  have  proven  that  when  they  have 
been  forced  to  eat  that  which  was  unattractive  or  distasteful  to  them  it  was 
digested  improperly.  If  the  food  pleased  the  palate  the  fact  was  instantly 
communicated  to  the  digestive  glands  of  the  mouth  and  stomach,  which 
stimulate  the  secretions  even  before  the  food  reaches  them.  Foods  not 
palatable  did  not  cause  this  secretion,  hence  improper  digestion  followed. 

Variety 

Variety  in  diet  helps  to  increase  palatability.  It  is  therefore  better  to 
feed  a  mLxture  of  grains  all  of  which  fowls  like  than  it  is  to  feed  any  one 
kind  of  grain,  no  matter  how  good  it  may  be.  The  reason  is  twofold. 
Not  only  will  the  fowl  have  a  better  chance  to  get  a  ration  best  suited  to 
her  particular  needs,  thus  in  a  measure  balancing  her  own  ration,  but  she 
will  also  have  a  variety  from  day  to  day  to  break  the  monotony  of  sameness 
that  always  comes  from  eating  any  single  food.  The  main  organ  of 
taste,  the  palate,  the  watch  dog  of  the  stomach,  becomes  deadened  by 
constant  tasting  of  the  same  food,  just  as  the  sense  of  smell  becomes 
dulled  when  compelled  to  inhale  the  same  odors  for  any  great  length  of 
time.  Distaste  for  food  is  Nature's  way  of  indicating  that  the  system  has 
enough  of  that  particular  thing.  That  is  one  reason  why  we  prefer  to 
feed  a  mixture  of  grain  at  one  feeding  rather  than  to  feed  a  single  grain 
for  a  time  and  then  change  to  another. 

If  the  grains  are  similar  in  composition,  such  change  from  time  to 
time  will  prove  beneficial,  but  any  radical  change  in  diet  may  derange 
digestion  and  retard  egg-production. 

Cooked  vs.  Uncooked  Food 

It  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  that  cooking  food  for  poultry^  does  not 
pay.  However,  with  some  foods  cooking  does  pay.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  some  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes  and  turnips,  both  of  which,  in 
the  raw  state,  are  not  particularly  attractive  to  hens  (unless  they  can  steal 
them).     When  they  are  boiled  they  are  much  relished.     This  may  be  due  to 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry  177 

the  fact  that  starchy  foods  are  rendered  more  digestible  by  virtue  of  the 
cracking  of  the  starch  grains,  or  it  may  be  because  they  are  made  more  palat- 
able, or  both.  Fowls  seem  to  prefer  cooked  meat  to  the  raw  article,  which 
is  rather  surprising  in  view  of  the  fact  that  hens  in  nature  get  their  animal 
food  raw,  and  also  in  face  of  the  general  belief  that  cooking  albumin  coagu- 
lates it,  which  renders  it  less  digestible.  It  would  seem  that  hens,  like 
people,  have  civilized  tastes,  and  that  palatability  plays  a  more  important 
part  with  lower  animals  than  is  generally  supposed. 

Even  if  cooking  poultry  foods  rendered  them  more  digestible  in  all 
cases,  the  question  of  labor  and  expense  would  still  have  to  be  considered. 
In  fact,  it  is  this  item  perhaps  more  than  any  other  which  makes  it 
undesirable  to  cook  the  ground  food  for  the  hot  mash. 

Scalding  the  ground  food  answers  the  purpose  of  giving  something  hot 
and  apparently  improves  its  flavor,  but  it  should  be  mixed  quickly  and  fed 
immediately  or  be  kept  closely  covered,  so  that  the  natural,  attractive 
aroma  may  not  escape.  The  instant  that  scalding  or  boiling  takes  place  the 
characteristic  odors  and  flavors  that  render  most  foods  attractive  are  driven 
off.  If  this  occurs  and  the  food  is  allowed  to  stand,  much  of  the  charm  of 
attractiveness  is  lost. 

Our  plan  is  to  boil  a  kettleful  of  mixed  vegetables  and  bones  from  the 
butcher's  with  the  kettle  closely  covered.  When  thoroughly  cooked,  this  is 
put  into  a  mixing-tub  and  thoroughly  mashed.  Then  ground  grain  is  added 
until  the  mixture  becomes  dry  and  crumbly,  when  it  is  fed  immediately. 
Experience  will  very  quickly  indicate  the  proportion  of  vegetables  and  grain , 
and  also  how  much  of  the  mixture  will  be  needed  for  a  feeding.  No  rule 
can  be  given,  so  much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  grain  mixture  and 
the  kind  of  vegetables  used,  and  upon  the  appetites  of  the  fowls. 

How  Much  and  How  Often  to  Feed 

How  much  to  feed  is  more  important  than  how  often ;  but  the  time  and 
method  of  feeding  has  much  to  do  with  success.  This  is  true  whether  we 
are  feeding  for  eggs  or  for  growth  or  for  fat.  In  their  natural  state  fowls 
rustle  and  hunt  for  most  of  their  food.  It  is  gathered  a  little  at  a  time  and 
held  in  the  crop  until  a  convenient  opportunity  for  grinding,  digesting  and 
assimilating.  It  is  much  the  same  as  a  cow  foraging  until  her  paunch  is 
filled,  when  she  quietly  rests  and  chews  her  cud.  It  is  probable  that  some 
grinding  and  digesting  is  done  while  the  hen  is  foraging,  but  it   seems 


178 


The   Poultry    Book 


quite  evident  that  the  larger  part  of  the  digestive  and  assimilative  process 
takes  place  when  the  body  is  quiet,  particularly  at  night.  The  gizzard 
works  by  the  involuntary  muscles,  as  do  the  heart  and  lungs,  whether  the 
fowls  are  asleep  or  awake.  A  hen  does  not  lie  awake  to  grind  her  food. 
In  fact,  it  is  probable  that  the  grinding  and  digesting  process  takes  place 
most  rapidly  and  most  completely  during  sleep,  as  is  the  case  with  other 
animals.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fowl  can  adjust  herself  readily 
to  the  slow  accumulation  of  food  or  to  a  rapid  filling  of  the  crop,  because 
this  organ  is  intended  to  regulate  the  rapidity  of  digestion.     The  crop  is  the 

hopper  or  the 
supply  sack  to 
carry  the  sur- 
plus. It  works 
both  by  volun- 
tary and  in- 
voluntary 
muscles,  and  is 
wholly  under 
the  control  of 
the  fowl.  When 
the  system 
craves  more 
nourishment 
the  fowl  lets 
more  food  pass  from  the  crop  through  a  small  stomach  where  the 
gastric  juice  is  secreted.  The  food  then  passes  to  the  gizzard,  where 
it  is  crushed  into  a  fine  semiliquid  condition,  and  is  forced  on  into 
the  intestines,  where  digestion  continues  and  assimilation  and  absorp- 
tion takes  place.  With  this  explanation,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  that 
the  hen  can  adjust  herself  to  varied  conditions.  Nevertheless,  it  pays 
to  be  regular  in  habits  of  feeding.  Where  fowls  are  confined  to  houses 
or  small  yards  this  is  more  important  than  where  they  have  free  range 
and  can  forage  for  part  of  their  living,  because  while  at  liberty  if  the 
regular  feeding  should  fail  the  appetite  could  easily  be  appeased  by  foraging. 
From  the  standpoint  of  exercise  and  happiness  on  the  part  of  the  hen,  fre- 
quent feeding  is  better  than  heavy  feeding  once  or  twice  a  da}^  Little  and 
often  is  a  good  rule,  particularly  with  the  heavier  breeds,  where  exercise 


From  a  dfa-wing  by  Ha 

DORKIXG    AXD    WY.W'DOTTE ^CORXISH    INDIAN 

Skin  thin  and  flesh  white  and  of  good  texture 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry  179 

is  of  great  importance  to  keep  them  from  becoming  too  fat  and  to  avoid 
overfeeding.  However,  the  element  of  labor  always  enters  in,  and  we  find 
that  for  most  purposes  feeding  three  times  a  day  is  the  most  satisfactory. 

The  hen  is  an  early  riser  and  likes  to  begin  work  as  soon  as  she  can  see. 
The  first  meal  should  be  fine  grain.  We  want  the  hens  to  work.  They 
are  usually  more  incHned  to  do  this  in  the  morning  than  at  any  other  time 
of  the  day.  This  is  because  the  crop  has  been  emptied  during  the  night  and 
the  food  most  likely  digested  and  assimilated.  They  will  then  have  both 
an  empty  crop  and  a  good  sharp  appetite  as  an  incentive  to  work.  It  is 
important,  also,  that  they  exercise  in  the  morning,  because  that  is  usually 
the  coldest  part  of  the  day,  and  the  activity  will  keep  the  body  warm  and 
will  stimulate  a  good  appetite  for  dinner,  particularly  if  the  morning  feed 
has  been  a  little  light,  which  should  always  be  the  case. 

If  the  soft  food  were  to  be  fed  in  the  morning,  as  used  to  be  the  almost 
universal  custom,  the  fowls  would  fill  up  quickly,  and  the  food,  not  having 
to  wait  to  be  ground,  would  pass  on  quickly  to  be  digested  and  thus  to 
satisfy  hunger.  This  would  satisfy  the  appetite  and  destroy  the  incentive 
to  forage.  The  hens  would  most  likely  stand  around  on  one  foot  or  squat 
down  and  rest  perfectly  contented.  Hens  will  not  work  just  to  keep  warm. 
Exercise  must  be  impelled  by  appetite.  If  the  hens  have  been  properly 
fed  in  the  morning  with  only  a  light  feeding,  they  will  come  hungry  for 
dinner,  which  should  be  fed  early. 

At  noon  is  the  time  to  give  them  all  they  will  eat  up  clean  within  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes.  If  less  is  given,  it  is  possible  that  some  timid  or  slow- 
eating  fowls  will  not  get  enough.  If  so  much  is  fed  that  they  are  all  the 
afternoon  eating  it,  they  may  get  too  much  of  the  rich,  easily  digested  con- 
centrated food  and  be  overstimulated,  or  have  their  digestion  overtaxed, 
which  would  surely  result  in  less  eggs.  There  is  not  as  much  danger  of 
this  if  the  soft  food  contains  considerable  bulky  material,  as  it  should,  such 
as  cut  clover  hay,  wheat  bran  or  ground  oats.  Moreover,  where  soft  mash 
stands  very  long  it  loses  flavor,  and  in  winter  becomes  cold  and  in  summer 
quickly  sours.     This  is  apt  to  cause  trouble. 

At  night,  hens  should  be  given  all  the  whole  grain  that  they  can  eat. 
It  is  better  to  have  a  little  left  over  than  not  to  have  enough.  This  feeding 
should  be  done  early  enough  so  that  the  hens  will  have  time  before  dark 
to  find  the  grain  in  the  straw  litter.  This  grain  feeding  will  usually  be  all 
ground  up  by  the  digestive  organs  before  m  orning. 


i8o  The   Poultry    Book 

If  the  soft  food  should  be  fed  at  night,  it  would  pass  too  quickly  into 
circulation,  and  the  gizzard  would  not  have  its  natural  amount  of  work 
to  do  during  the  night. 

Balancing  Their  Own  Rations 

If  a  variety  of  grains,  including  all  the  principal  ones  commonly  used 
for  poultry,  are  thrown  where  fowls  can  have  their  choice,  they  will  usually 
eat  the  corn  first. 

If  the  sense  of  taste,  which  indicates  the  fowls'  likes  and  dislikes,  were 
a  correct  and  safe  criterion  by  which  to  judge  food  best  suited  to  the  fowls* 
needs,  surely  corn  would  be  the  universal  poultry  food.  But  this  is  not 
so.  The  appetite  is  simply  the  signboard  to  digestion,  and  it  does  not  hang 
out  its  danger  signal  until  there  has  been  an  accident  and  there  is  occasion 
for  it.  Digestion  learns  by  experience.  The  warning  may  come  too  late, 
so  far  as  health  and  profitable  production  are  concerned.  The  fowls' 
estimate  of  a  good  food  is  the  kind  that  tastes  good,  digests  easily  and 
permits  a  little  surplus  energy  (fat)  to  be  accumulated.  That,  with  a 
fowl,  is  contentment. 

Let  this  lazy  contentment  continue  and  there  comes  a  time  when  the 
body  is  overstocked  with  fat,  a  derangement  of  digestion  takes  place  and 
the  appetite  rebels  against  the  food  that  once  it  craved.  The  same  phe- 
nomena takes  place  where  an  animal,  spurred  on  by  an  unusual  appetite, 
eats  more  of  any  kind  of  food  than  it  can  digest.  The  system  becomes 
overcharged  with  the  particular  nutrient  with  which  the  food  abounds 
and  that  food  becomes  repulsive. 

One  experience  like  this  may  never  be 'forgotten,  and  as  a  result  that 
food  may  never  again  be  relished.  The  chief  difficulty,  then,  of  giving  fowls 
unlimited  access  to  food,  is  that  the  danger  is  reached  before  the  warning 
comes.  Another  is,  that  one  of  the  best  incentives  to  good  health,  which  is 
exercise,  is  lost  or  at  least  impaired.  Still  another  reason  is  that  food  which 
an  animal  sees  and  smells  continuously  loses  much  of  its  attractiveness. 
The  senses  of  sight  and  smell  also  have  much  to  do  with  perfect  diges- 
tion, as  has  been  proven  by  a  recent  experiment  in  which  a  dog  was 
allowed  to  see  and  smell  food  which  it  liked  but  was  not  allowed  to  eat. 
Examination  of  the  digestive  tract  showed  that  great  quantities  of  diges- 
tive juices  had  been  secreted  preparatory  to  digestion  which  had  been  antici- 
pated. When  the  nerve  had  been  cut  which  had  connected  the  digesti^'e 
glands  with  the  senses  of  sight,  smell  and  taste  no  secretion  of  digestive  fluid 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


i8i 


took  place.     Therefore  we  can  readily  understand  why  seeing  and  smelling 

things  which  are  very  much  relished  aids  digestion  and  makes  the  ' '  mouth 

water."      Constant    excitation    of    the    senses    deadens    them    and    thus 

impairs    their 

effectiveness. 

Less     danger 

will    occur 

where  fowls 

have  constant 

accessto 


r 


From  a  dra-wing  by  Harrison  Weir 
FAT    WILD    DUCK    (mALLARD) 
Bred  by  Mr.  Harrison  Weir 


whole  grain  or 
very  bulky 
food  than 
where  much 
rich  stimu- 
lating soft 
ground  food 
i  s  supplied, 
for  the  ap- 
parent reason 
that  with  the 
coarse,  hard 
food  much 

more  time  will  be  required  to  soften  and  grind  it,  and  therefore  the  amount 
that  can  be  eaten  will  be  limited.  Even  then  fowls  are  almost  certain  to 
become  too  fat.     This  is  particularly  true  of  hens  not  in  laying. 

Whole  Grain  vs.  Ground  Feed 

Where  we  desire  to  push  the  hens  to  the  largest  possible  egg-production, 
regardless  of  fertility  or  vigor  of  the  germ,  about  or  nearly  one-half  of  the 
grain  food  should  be  fed  ground.  This  is  because  the  hens  cannot  grind  the 
whole  grain  fast  enough  to  make  eggs  as  rapidly  as  the}^  would  if  part  of  the 
grain  were  ground  for  them.  It  will  pay  to  do  this  grinding.  Engine 
power  is  cheaper  than  hand  power.  It  may  be  said  also  in  favor  of  feeding 
ground  food  that  the  hen  requires  food  to  grind  food.  Anything  that 
requires  effort — motion — whether  it  is  inside  or  outside  the  body,  takes 
energy.     These  two  facts  found  good  proof  in  the  experiments  by  Professor 


1 82  The    Poultry    Book 

W.  P.  Wheeler,  who  found  that  Leghorn  hens  having  a  ration  in  which 
the  grain  was  whole  consumed  on  the  average  for  two  years  more  than  twenty 
per  cent,  more  food  for  the  same  egg -production  than  did  similar  hens 
having  half  the  grain  in  their  ration  ground  and  moistened. 

The  hens  having  the  whole  grain  had  on  the  average  for  two  years 
6.4  pounds  of  water-free  food  for  every  pound  of  eggs  produced.  Those 
having  ground  grain  had  on  the  average  for  two  years  5.3  pounds  of  water- 
free  food  for  every  pound  of  eggs  produced — a  difference  of  i .  i  pounds  of 
water-free  food  for  each  pound  of  eggs.  Possibly  it  may  be  asked  why  not 
then  feed  more  ground  food  and  get  still  more  eggs  ?  That  would  probably 
be  wise  if  the  largest  number  of  eggs  were  desired  for  a  very  short  period — 
which  is  not  usually  the  case.  Under  such  forced  feeding  upon  concen- 
trated foods  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  result  eventually  would  be 
indigestion,  which  would  result  in  retarding  egg -production.  The  ultimate 
effect  would  depend  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  soft  food.  If  it  were 
composed  largely  of  the  bulky  food,  such  as  bran,  ground  oats  and  cut  clover, 
the  result  would  be  much  the  same  as  if  all  whole  grain  had  been  fed.  It 
would  make  digestion  slow,  and  the  danger  of  giving  too  much  soft  food 
would  be  decreased.  Great  caution  must  be  used  when  feeding  such  rich 
concentrated  foods  as  meat  scraps,  middlings,  gluten  and  oil  meals,  corn 
meal  and  the  like — which  are  fine  in  texture  and  deficient  in  fiber. 

Exercise 

Nearly  all  poultry -keepers  believe  that  exercise  is  an  important  factor 
in  egg -production.  It  would  seem  that  there  must  be  some  truth  in  this 
general  belief.  I  believe  there  is,  and  that  it  is  found  in  the  fact  that  activity 
of  the  ovaries  is  \'ery  largely  dependent  upon  the  physical  vigor  of  the  fowl, 
and  that  exercise  is  an  essential  to  physical  vigor.  By  it  fowls  strengthen 
their  vitality  and  increase  all  their  bodily  functions,  including  purification 
of  the  blood  by  better  breathing  and  elimination  of  impurities  through  the 
secretions  from  the  kidneys.  Activity  of  respiration  increases  combustion  in 
the  lungs,  which  warms  the  body.  Therefore,  the  busy  hen  will  be  warmer 
than  the  one  that  stands  around  with  nothing  to  do. 

This  is  an  important  consideration  in  cold  weather.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  all  this  exercise  will  burn  up  food  nutrients  and  thus  increase  the 
appetite,  for  that  exercise  increases  the  appetite  is  a  self-evident  truth. 
This  is  a  sign  of  good  health  and  always  precedes  good  egg-production. 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry* 


183 


The  extra  cost  of  food  is  no  argument  against  exercise  if  by  it  the 
fowls  keep  in  better  health  and  are  stimulated  to  higher  production. 

Another  argument  in  favor  of  exercise  is  that  fowls  are  made  happy 
by  being  allowed  to  indulge  their  natural  instinct  to  hunt  and  scratch.  So 
pronounced  is  this  characteristic  that  little  chickens  a  day  old  will  scratch 
industriously  for  food  on  a  bare  table  where  there  is  no  excuse  for  so  doing. 
It  is  born  in  them.  They  enjoy  it.  The  best  way  to  start  hens  to  singing  is 
to  give  them  something  to  do.     A  singing  hen  is  apt  to  be  a  laying  hen. 

When  the  cold  weather  comes  another  law  asserts  itself.  The  animal 
instinctively  avoids  exertion.  The  physical  activities  of  the  hybernating 
animal  become  almost  dormant.  This  same  tendency  is  noticed  with 
poultry,  though  in  a  less  marked  degree.  They  are  simply  following  the 
dictates  of  a  natural  law,  which  is  that  activity,  either  physical  or  mental, 
uses  up  energy,  which  is  the  result  of  heat,  which  is  derived  from  the  fat 
in  the  body  or  direct  from  nutrients  in  the  food.  Thus  we  find  hybernating 
animals  coming  out  of  winter  quarters  spring-poor,  having  used  up  the 
fuel  stored  up  in  the  fall — in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  have  been  husband- 
ing their  energies — just  the  same  as  a  fireman  short  of  coal  would  economize 
his  fuel.  The  hen  does  the  same.  She  does  it  intuitively.  The  difficulty 
of  overcoming 
this  inherited 
tendency  is  one 
of  the  reasons 
why  it  is  so 
hard  to  make 
hens  lay  well 
while  the  days 
are  getting 
shorter  and  the 
weather  colder. 

The  all- 
important 
problem  of  the 
poultryman    is 

not  so  much  the  husbanding  of  energies  or  the  saving  of  food  as  it  is  the 
getting  of  eggs  and  the  keeping  of  his  fowls  in  the  best  possible  health. 

*  Begun  in  Part  III. — By  James  E.  Rice,  New  York. 


A    GOOD    BUT    SMALL    COMMON   GOOSE 
Weight  10  lbs. 


1 84  The    Poultry   Book 

Therefore,  the  first  object  for  the  poultry^man  to  overcome  is  the  inactive, 
conserving  tendency  in  his  fowls.  He  must  do  this  even  at  the  expense 
of  greater  food -consumption  if  he  wishes  to  force  egg-production. 

Temperature  and  Food-Consumption 
It  is  apparent  that  fowls  which  are  kept  in  cold  houses  will  require 
more  of  the  food  nutrients  than  will  those  which  are  kept  warm.  How- 
ever, the  part  of  the  food — the  carbohydrates — which  is  used  for  the  purpose 
is  the  least  expensive  of  the  food  nutrients  and  is  usually  found  in  sufficient 
quantities  in  most  of  our  grains.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  the  same  nutrient 
that  is  required  to  make  fat  in  the  animal,  it  naturally  follows  that  animals 
already  fat  will  suffer  less  during  exposure  than  fowls  not  fat.  It  is  the 
natural  tendency  of  all  animal  life  to  prepare  for  this  emergency,  and  there- 
fore as  cold  weather  approaches  the  body  fortifies  itself  by  storing  up 
fat.  At  such  times  the  appetite  naturally  craves  those  foods  that  will  most 
readily  make  fat.  This  increased  appetite  and  the  readiness  to  fatten  as 
cold  weather  approaches  is  recognized  by  feeders  of  all  animals,  and  is 
one  reason  why  it  is  so  difficult  to  keep  hens  from  becoming  too  fat  for  good 
egg-production  at  this  time  of  year.  It  is  the  natural  instinct  of  all  animals 
to  go  into  winter  quarters  "hog-fat." 

Feeding  According  to  Age 
Alature  fowls  not  laying  eat  less  in  proportion  to  live  weight  than  do 
those  that  are  young.  This  is  because  the  mature  fowls  have  only  to  main- 
tain their  bodies,  while  young  stock  not  only  maintain  the  growth  already 
made  but  they  must  have  the  food  to  make  new  growth.  The  table  *  here 
given  shows  the  relative  amount  of  food  required  per  day  for  each  loo 
pounds  live  weight  with  chickens  of  different  ages.  It  illustrates  most 
aptly  the  point  in  question. 

Rations  for  Chicks 

Total 
Drv  Matter        Ash  Protein  Carboh.  Fat 

'lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs. 


For  first  two  weeks lo.i 

From  2  to    4  weeks  of  age 9.6 

"      4  to    6       •'         "          8.6 

"      6  to    8       "         "         7.4 

8  to  10       "         "          6.4 

"    10  to  12        "         "          5.4 

*  W.  P.  Wheeler,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station. 


6.2 
56 
4-9 
4-4 
3-7 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry  185 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  young  animals  is  larger  than  of  the  adult, 
in  proportion  to  their  live  weight,  which  is  a  physiological  explanation 
of  their  rapid  growth  in  proportion  to  their  live  weight. 

As  the  fowls  become  older  their  tendency  to  throw  their  energies  into 
fat  rather  than  into  eggs  or  muscle  increases.  Therefore  it  is  not 
profitable,  as  a  rule,  to  keep  fowls  after  the  second  year — except  in  case 
of  exceptionally  good  ones,  which  of  course  should  be  retained  as  breeders. 

Feeding  Pullets 

The  aim  in  feeding  pullets  from  the  time  the  sex  can  be  distinguished 
until  they  have  reached  the  proper  period  of  maturity  to  lay  is  to  keep  them 
growing  as  rapidly  as  possible  without  forcing  them  to  premature  pro- 
duction. This  is  a  fine  point  and  a  difficult  one — particularly  with  the 
breeds  that  have  the  egg-producing  tendency  largely  developed. 

If  the  food  is  too  easily  digested  and  too  stimulating  and  fed  too  liberally 
the  pullets  will  be  stimulated  to  lay  before  they  have  reached  the  proper 
size,  which  would  check  their  growth  and  perhaps  injure  foreve  what 
should  have  been  the  most  prolific  layers  in  the  flock.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  food  is  too  indigestible  or  too  deficient  in  growth  material  or  too  spar- 
ingly fed  they  will  not  get  sufficient  nourishment  to  make  a  normal  growth. 
This  latter  condition  occurs  more  often  by  far  than  the  former,  but  both 
should  be  guarded  against.  To  avoid  too  stimulating  a  diet,  feed  meat 
sparingly  and  concentrated  ground  feed  but  once  a  day.  Plenty  of  range — 
good  mixture  of  whole  grain,  like  wheat,  oats,  barley,  peas  and  com.  To 
avoid  too  slow  development,  guard  against  feeding  too  largely  on  fattening 
foods,  like  corn,  buckwheat,  etc.  See  to  it  that  all  the  flock  have  enough 
to  eat  three  times  a  day.  When  feeding  ground  food  there  should  not  be 
too  much  bulk. 

Feeding  Different  Breeds 

Generally  speaking,  the  ration  that  will  give  the  best  results  with  one 
breed  of  fowls  will  not  in  the  long  run  be  the  one  that  will  give  most  satis- 
factory returns  when  fed  to  dissimilar  breeds. 

On  general  principles,  it  may  be  accepted  that  the  same  food  nutrients 
that  go  to  make  eggs,  meat  or  fat  in  one  breed  will  do  the  same  in  all  breeds, 
but  that  they  are  not  required  in  similar  proportion.  This  is  because  the 
element  of  heredity  enters  into  the  problem  and  the  inherited  tendencies 
of  the  breed  assert  themselves.     That  is  why  the  same  ration  will  make 


i86 


The   Poultry   Book 


CORXISH    INDIAN    AND    LANGSHAN 

A  good  fowl 


a  Leghorn  produce  eggs  while  an  Indian  game  produces  meat ;  a  young 
fowl  grow  muscle  and  an  old  fowl  grow  fat. 

In  the  first  case,  the  tendency  is  inborn  to  throw  its  food  into  reproduc- 
tion ,  in  the  second, 
the  inherited 
tendency  is  to 
throw  its  energies 
into  expansion ; 
in  the  third,  the 
tendency  toward 
muscular  develop- 
ment asserts  itself ; 
while  in  the  fourth 
case,  this  tendency 
having  reached  its 
limit,  the  food 
nutrients  are  then 
naturally  enough 
stored  up  as  a 
reserve  lorce  in  the  form  of  fat.  That  is  why  it  is  difficult  to  fatten 
young  stock,  and  why  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  mature  stock 
from  becoming  too  fat  when  fed  liberally.  So  strong  are  these 
tendencies  asserted  that  the  mature  animal  will  actually  convert 
the  food  nutrients  into  fat  which  with  a  young  animal  would  have 
naturally  gone  to  make  muscle  or  eggs.  So,  too,  one  breed  inherits 
an  active,  industrious  disposition  and  works  off  its  energies,  while 
a  fowl  of  another  breed  having  a  phlegmatic  disposition  stores  up  its 
energies,  being  too  good-natured  and  lazy  to  use  them.  Therefore  it  becomes 
necessary  to  feed  fowls  of  different  ages  and  different  breeds  on  rations  best 
suited  to  develop  or  counteract  these  tendencies,  as  may  be  desired.  If  we 
want  a  breed  to  lay  that  is  naturally  inclined  to  become  fat,  we  must  feed 
foods  containing  less  of  the  fattening  nutrients — /.  <?.,  a  narrower  ration — 
and  make  them  work  to  use  up  fat  which  may  be  stored. 

If  they  are  of  the  active  disposition  that  naturally  works  off  their  fat, 
they  can  be  fed  more  of  the  fattening  nutrients  with  safety — i.  e.,  a  wider 
ration.  In  fact,  it  is  imperative  that  we  pay  close  attention  to  the  dis- 
position of  the  fowls  if  they  are  to  be  kept  fat  enough  to  do  well. 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


187 


The  problem,  then,  of  getting  the  best  net  results  in  egg-production 
with  heavy  breeds  is  how  to  give  enough  food  to  enable  them  to  lay  well 
without  getting  them  too  fat.  To  do  this  we  may  have  to  sacrifice  some- 
thing in  cost  of  food,  because  the  narrower  ration  costs  more  than  the 
wider  one.  Protein  is  more  expensive  than  carbohydrates.  The  following 
result  of  an  experiment  is  a  case  in  point : 

Cochin  hens  having  a  whole  grain  ration  laid  much  better  than  those  hav- 
ing the  ground  grain,  while  with  the  Leghorns  those  that  had  part  soft  feed  laid 
best.  The  better  results  from  feeding  whole  grain  to  Cochins  was  very  likely 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  compelled  to  exercise  more  to  get  their  food, 
and,  having  to  do  all  their  own  grinding,  were  prevented  from  becoming  too 
fat — the  fat  nutrients  being  used  up  in  the  work  of  grinding  and  scratching. 

It  must  be  apparent,  then,  how  impossible  it  is  to  get  the  best  results 
from  egg-production  where  the  breeds  are  mLxed  up  miscellaneously  and 
the  same  ration  and  treatment  given  all. 

Feeding  Breeding  Stock 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  feeding  the  fowls  that  are 
to  perpetuate  their  kind.  While  it  is  the  natural  law  of  all  plant  and  animal 
life  that  the 
parent  will  sacri- 
fice its  own  body 
to  the  last  ex- 
tremity in  order 
to  make  a  perfect 
offspring,  never- 
theless  there 
comes  a  time 
when  the  body 
can  no  longer  fur- 
nish the  materials 
in  the  right  quan- 
tity and  propor- 
tion   to    perform 

its  natural  office  and  reproduce  vigorous,  perfect  offspring.  This  fact 
is  clearly  shown  in  the  analysis  made  by  Professor  Harry  Snyder  of 
eggs  from  hens  fed  by  the  writer  upon  rations  that  were  radically  different 


:     FAVEROLLE      (EX)      ANCEAUMA 
Shown  at  Islington.     3'^  months  olri.     V'ery  fat 


i88 


The  Poultry  Book 


in  composition  ;  one  being  very  deficient  in  protein,  called  the  carbonaceous 
ration,  the  other  being  deficient  in  carbohydrates,  called  the  nitrogenous 
ration.  Surely  such  wide  differences  in  the  composition  of  the  eggs  would 
result  in  wide  differences  as  to  the  development  and  vitality  of  the 
chickens. 

Analysis  of  Eggs  from  the  Two  Rations 


Yolk  of  Egg  Contained 

Water 

Nitrogen  in  dry  substance 

Protein 3 

Fat 

Shell 


White  of  Egg  Contained 

Nitro- 
genous 
Ration 
Per  cent. 

Carbon- 
aceous 
Ration 

Per  cent 

Water 

92.08 

90.22 

Nitrogen  in  dry  substance 

14-23 

13-71 

Protein  

88,92 

85.69 

Fat 

0-53 

0.64 

Nitro- 
genous 
Ration 
Percent. 

Carbon- 
aceous 
Ration 

Percent. 

44-47 

41.60 

4.90 

4-97 

30.62 

30-83 

64-43 

64.78 

8.69 

8.48 

It  will  be  wise  generally  to  not  push  for  eggs  the  hens  that  are  to  be  used 
for  breeders  during  the  early  winter  months.  It  will  pay  in  the  long  run  to 
sacrifice  something  in  egg-production  for  the  sake  of  increased  vigor  and 
vitality  in  the  chickens.  It  seems  pretty  well  demonstrated  that  fowls  that 
have  been  laying  rapidly  and  continuously  for  a  long  period  previous  to  the 
breeding  season  will  not  give  eggs  that  will  hatch  as  many  or  as  strong 
chickens  as  fowls  that  have  not  been  forced  up  to  the  breeding  season.  It 
is  perhaps  largely  for  this  reason  that  hens  are  usually  more  satisfactory 
as  breeders  than  pullets.  Hens  in  comparison  to  pullets  usually  lay  but  few 
eggs  during  the  fall  and  early  winter.  In  order  to  hold  back  the  breeding 
stock  it  will  be  wise  to  feed  them  almost  entirely  on  whole  grain,  only  a  little 
meat  and  plenty  of  vegetables.  Or  if  much  soft  ground  food  is  fed  it  should 
be  very  bulky  in  its  make-up.  The  activity  of  the  gizzard  and  slow  diges- 
tion will  help  to  keep  the  fowls  from  being  over-forced  or  becoming  too  fat. 
For  the  same  reason  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  fresh  air  should  be  encouraged. 

Feeding  Sitting  Hens 

Sitting  hens  should  be  as  well  fed  as  those  that  are  laying,  but  the 
feeding  should  be  different.  Grain  should  be  left  where  they  can  get  it 
whenever  they  desire  to  come  off  the  nest.  This  is  done  not  only  as  a 
matter  of  convenience,  but  also  to  insure  the  hens  getting  all  they  want  to 
eat,  and  also  to  get  them  in  the  habit  of  coming  off"  regularly,  which  they  will 
be  more  apt  to  do  if  they  know  the  food  is  always  obtainable.  It  is  better 
to  feed  all  whole  grain  in  good  variety,  such  as  corn,  oats  and  wheat.  The 
reason  is  that  all  the  food  a  sitting  hen  requires  is  for  her  bodily  maintenance. 


The   Feeding   of    Poultry 


189 


She  is  a  non-producer,  and  will  therefore  be  able  to  satisfy  her  needs  without 
soft  food,  vegetables  or  meat,  though  a  little  of  these  will  be  a  benefit. 
The  danger  lies  in  feeding  so  much  vegetable  food  as  to  loosen  the  bowels, 
or  in  feeding  so  much  meat  as  to  stimulate  a  desire  to  discontinue  sitting 
and  go  to  laying. 

Breaking  Up  Broody  Hens 

The  problem  in  feeding  broody  hens  is  twofold:  we  want  to  break 
up  the  desire  for  incubation,  and  get  the  fowls  to  laying  again  as  soon  as 
possible.  If  it  were  simply  to  do  the  former,  starving  them  or  ducking 
them  in  the  water-trough 
might  be  sufficient  diver- 
sion to  take  their  mind 
from  the  natural  inclina- 
tion to  sit.  This  treat- 
ment, however,  would 
delay  rather  than  pro- 
mote that  state  of 
physical  vigor  and  nerve 
sxrength  necessary  t  o 
egg-production . 

After  a  period  of 
laying  the  fowl  is  in  a 
condition  of  nerve  ex- 
haustion.   This  may  and 

may  not  mean  fat  exhaustion.  Because  very  often  broody  hens  are 
overfat.  When  in  this  state  they  are  not  in  the  best  physical  con- 
dition. The  same  is  also  true  of  the  hen  poor  in  flesh.  Manifestly  the 
best  way  to  get  a  hen  to  lay  is  the  best  way  to  break  up  the  broody  desire. 
That  is  to  say,  if  she  is  too  fat,  feed  abundantly  on  easily  digestible  food 
rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  If  she  is  poor  in  condition,  more  fatten- 
ing food  like  corn  should  be  added.  As  a  matter  of  practice,  it  will  be  found 
impractical  to  bother  to  feed  broody  hens  differently  from  the  laying  fowls 
unless  it  appears  that  the  broody  hens  are  radically  different  in  their  condi- 
tion and  a  special  effort  is  being  made  to  get  the  largest  possible  net  results 
regardless  of  time  and  expense — the  point  to  be  emphasized  being  the 
importance  of  liberal  feeding  instead  of  a  starvation  treatment  in  the  hand- 
ling of  broody  hens.     It  is  important  also  that  the  hens  be  taken  from  the 


From  a  draiuing  by  Harrison  I 
FAT    MONGREL    FOWL 
■wing  fat  accumulation  about  neck  and  lower  part  of  breast 


iqo 


The   Poultry   Book 


nests  as  soon  as  they  manifest  a  desire  to  sit,  because  the  desire  seems 
to  become  stronger  if  they  are  ahowed  to  remain  on  the  nest  several  days. 
Grit,  water  and  both  whole  grain  and  soft  mash  should  be  provided.  It  is 
our  practice  to  let  the  broody  hens  out  after  three  or  four  days'  confinement. 
A  few"  of  the  hens  will  return  to  the  nest  and  must  be  recaught.  We 
think  it  wiser  to  do  this  than  to  keep  the  others  cooped  up  unnecessarily. 


Feeding  Molting  Hens 

The  molting  period  of  fowls  is  a  critical  time  in  their  lives.  In  nature 
they  seek  seclusion  because  they  are  in  a  somewhat  defenseless  condition — 
both  as  to  their  ability  to  escape  from  natural  enemies  and  their  power  to 
withstand  inclement  weather.  Therefore  in  domestication  they  manifest 
the  same  disposition,  and  must  be  given  special  care  as  to  food  and  shelter. 

The  time  and  manner  of  miolting  is  largely  a  question  of  inheritance ; 
various  conditions  of  age,  production  and  food  may  affect  the  natural 
inherited  tendency  so  as  to  hasten  or  retard  the  molting  process.  Normally 
hens  of  the  same  age  and  breed  would  shed  their  feathers  at  about  the  same 

time,  provid- 
ing other  con- 
ditions were 
equal.  But 
fowls  that  are 
early  hatched 
will  have 
reached  a 
condition  o  f 
maturit}"  pro- 
portionately 
earlier  than 
those  that  are 
hatched  late, 
consequently 
they  will  have 
performed 

their  normal  annual  life  work  of  growth,  egg-  and  feather  production,  after 
which  will  follow  rest,  recuperation  and  a  new  coat  of  feathers.  ]\Iost  fowls 
begin  life  during  the  warm  spring  months  both  in  nature  and  in  domesti- 


From  a  draiving  by  Ha 

MISS  croad's  laxgshan  prize  pullet 

Note  the  shortness  of  thigh  and  leg.    A  fine  sample 


The   Feeding  of   Poultry  191 

cation.  They  will  then  naturally  fulfil  their  life  work  of  reproduction  at 
about  the  same  time,  and  if  conditions  are  favorable  they  will  take  their 
rest  and  renew  their  coats  and  be  ready  for  winter  before  it  arrives.  But 
when  we  change  the  conditions  by  hatching  exceedingly  early  and  then  very 
late,  even  extending  the  time  to  fall  hatching,  we  find  a  difference  in  condi- 
tions of  maturity  and  a  consequent  difference  in  time  of  molting.  When 
we  add  to  this  a  system  of  feeding  intended  to  prolong  the  egg-production 
late  into  the  fall,  or,  in  contrast  to  this,  a  system  of  neglect  or  improper 
feeding  on  fattening  foods,  we  find  potent  factors  which  most  emphatically 
influence  the  time  and  manner  of  molt. 

It  may  be  well  to  here  inquire  what  constitutes  a  healthy  molt.  On 
this  point  poultrymen  do  not  agree.  My  own  belief  is,  that  a  natural, 
healthy  molt  is  one  where  a  rapid  growth  of  new  feathers  takes  the  place 
of  the  old  ones  as  fast  as  they  drop,  and  where  certain  feathers  are 
naturally  shed  while  others  wait  until  some  of  the  new  feathers  are  well 
grown,  which  is  a  condition  that  never  permits  a  fowl  to  be  nude  or 
decidedly  ragged. 

The  molt  where  all  or  most  of  the  feathers  are  shed  before  the  new 
coat  comes  on  is  not  the  most  healthy  molt.  It  is  not  in  accordance  with 
the  natural  laws.  In  nature,  all  bird  kind  quietly  drops  a  few  feathers  and 
replaces  them  before  other  feathers  fall,  so  that  at  no  time  will  it  be  unable 
to  flee  from  a  pursuer  or  be  unprotected  during  a  storm. 

A  careful  study  of  molting  hens  will  reveal  the  fact  that  a  very  fat 
fowl  will  shed  its  feathers  and  will  not  have  the  power  to  renew  its  coat, 
and  that  a  very  poor  fowl  will  not  be  able  to  shed  its  coat.  The  best  con- 
dition for  a  healthy  molt  is  to  be  found  between  these  two  extremes.  In 
other  words,  the  best  molt  occurs  when  the  fowl  is  in  the  best  possible 
health,  having  completed  its  year  of  egg-  and  feather  production. 

The  feathers  lose  life  and  vitality  when  the  ducts  which  nourish  them 
have  done  their  season's  work.  This  exhaustion  may  be  brought  about 
prematurely  by  physical  or  nerve  exhaustion,  either  through  heavy  laying, 
by  sickness,  or  by  starvation. 

This  is  according  to  common  observation  in  the  case  of  fever  in  the 
human  family,  when  the  hair  is  apt  to  fall  out,  or  where  pullets  completing 
their  flrst  period  of  laying  will  molt  even  in  the  dead  of  winter.  A  restora- 
tion to  health  by  generous  feeding  will  start  a  new  coat. 

In  a  healthy  animal,  the  glands  will  work,  and  unless  there  are  live, 


192  The  Poultry  Book 

healthy  feathers  there  to  take  the  nourishment  suppHed,  new  ones  wih  start, 
as  is  shown  by  the  cases  where  persons  preparing  fowls  for  exhibition  have 
plucked  their  feathers  and  so  timed  them  that  a  new  coat  is  grown  complete 
in  time  for  the  show. 

\Yhile  it  is  apparent  that  the  molting  process  is  somewhat  under  the 
control  of  man,  the  practical  question  to  be  asked  is,  whether  or  not  it  is 
desirable  to  force  a  molt.  All  producers  of  fall  and  winter  eggs  know  that 
the  hardest  time  of  all  the  year  to  get  hens  to  lay  is  during  the  months 
of  October,  November  and  December,  and  that  the  hens  that  lay  best 
during  these  months  are  usually  the  ones  that  have  molted  early.  The 
practice  of  forcing  an  early  molt  by  a  starvation  process,  so  that  the 
fowls  throw  their  feathers  in  a  bunch,  is  receiving  wide  pubhcity  and 
trial.     With  what  success,  time  only  will  reveal. 

I  venture  the  suggestion  that  it  will  be  wiser  and  more  profitable  to  let 
the  hens  lay  while  they  will  under  normal  conditions  rather  than  stop  them 
in  order  to  force  a  molt.  One  will  have  to  take  desperate  chances  to  get 
them  to  lay  again  much  sooner  than  they  ordinarily  would,  particularly 
if  as  radical  a  means  as  starvation  rations  is  used  to  compel  the  molt. 
Would  it  not  be  wiser  to  depend  more  largely  upon  early  hatched 
pullets  to  keep  up  the  early  winter  egg-supply,  and  simply  cut  out  the 
forcing  diet  from  the  hens  during  late  summer,  and  continue  to  feed 
good,  wholesome  whole  grain  for  maintenance  and  good  health  ? 

The  rational  ration  for  hens  during  their  molt  will  depend  upon  their 
condition.  If  they  are  poor  after  a  long  period  of  laying,  a  food  rich  in  oil, 
with  a  moderate  amount  of  protein,  will  be  best ;  oats  and  sunflower  and 
flaxseed  are  the  best  examples  of  foods  that  are  rich  in  oil  and  not  deficient 
in  protein.  If  the  fowls  are  fat,  a  ration  rich  in  protein  will  supply  the 
material  to  grow  a  new  coat  of  feathers  better  than  one  which  has  a  tendency 
to  fatten.  Old-process  oil  meal,  wheat  bran,  meat  meal,  skim  milk  and  clover 
meal  are  the  best  examples  of  feather-making  foods.  It  w411  be  seen  by  the 
analysis  of  feathers  that  they  contain  a  large  proportion  of  nitrogen,  and 
therefore  must  have  a  ration  rich  in  protein  in  order  to  make  the  gro\\i:h.* 

Feeding  Chickens 

Young  chickens  should  be  fed  little  and  often.  The  great  danger  in 
feeding  chickens  up  to  the  time  they  are    feathered  is  from    overfeeding. 

*Van  Dreser's  Molting  Art. 


The    Feeding   of    Poultry 


193 


MALAY    PULLET 


It  occurs  far  more  frequently  than  does  underfeeding.  Overfeeding  is  more 
apt  to  occur  with  brooder  chickens  that  have  little  chance  to  exercise  than 
it  does  with  chickens  that  run  with  the  hen.     There  is  far  less  danger  of  over- 


194  The   Poultry    Book 

feeding  with  whole  or  cracked  food  than  there  is  when  all  ground  food  is 
fed,  for  the  reason  that  digestion  must  take  place  more  slowly. 

It  therefore  follows  that  as  between  hard  and  soft  food,  where  both  are 
fed,  the  larger  the  proportion  of  ground  food  the  chickens  eat  the  faster  they 
will  grow;  and  conversely,  the  larger  the  proportion  of  cracked  or  whole 
grain  they  eat  the  slower  they  will  grow  and  the  less  will  be  the  dangers 
from  digestion  troubles. 

It  really  becomes  a  question  of  seeing  how  fast  we  can  grow  them  with- 
out "feeding  them  off  their  feet" — which  means  without  injuring  their 
digestion.  Most  feeders  will  prefer  to  keep  on  the  side  of  safety,  and 
not  try  to  force  them  too  fast. 

The  first  food  should  be  given  about  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching 
has  been  completed.  The  yolk  sack,  which  has  been  enclosed  within  the 
body  a  few  hours  before  hatching  began,  contains  all  the  food  that  is 
required  until  the  digestive  system  is  in  working  order.  The  mistake  some- 
times is  made  of  leaving  the  chickens  so  long  without  nourishment  that  they 
are  weakened — but  the  mistake  is  more  apt  to  be  made  in  the  other  direction. 
Hens  pay  more  attention  to  keeping  their  little  ones  warm  than  they  do  to 
hunting  for  a  big  dinner.     We  should  do  the  same. 

The  best  results  that  we  have  ever  had  in  raising  little  chickens  was  when 
we  fed  wheat  bread  soaked  in  skim  milk — squeezed  dry  and  fed  crumbled — 
for  the  first  day  or  two.  For  the  next  few  days  this  was  supplemented  with 
fine  cracked  grain,  principally  wheat  and  oatmeal.  I  think  a  large  variety 
of  seeds  and  fine  grain  is  an  advantage.  They  can  be  purchased  in  quan- 
tities of  poultry  supply  houses  and  a  mixture  made  to  suit  conditions. 
Several  combinations  of  these  grains  are  upon  the  market  which  we  have 
found  very  valuable.  We  have  had  well-grounded  suspicions  that  a  good 
deal  more  grit  is  often  put  in  these  foods  than  is  really  necessary.  The 
feeding  table  on  another  page  gives  the  composition  of  many  foods  that 
may  be  used  for  chick  feed. 

All  whole  or  cracked  grain  should  be  fed  in  a  litter  of  chaff,  where  the 
chickens  will  have  to  scratch  for  it,  if  they  are  confined.  This  should  form 
the  first  and  last  feeding  of  the  day. 

During  the  day  they  should  be  given  what  they  will  eat  up  clean  of 
soft  food,  which  should  be  dry  and  crumbly.  After  four  weeks  this  soft 
food  may  be  fed  quite  liberally. 

The  best  combination  which  we  have  ever  found  is  to  make  a  corn-meal 


The    Feeding   of   Poultry 


195 


"Johnny  cake,"  by  mixing  sour  milk  and  soda  to  make  it  light.     It  must 

be  thoroughly  cooked  all  the  way  through.     If  it  is  sodden  or  only  partly 

baked  it  is  a  dangerous  food.     When  taken  from  the  oven  it  should  be 

covered  with  a  damp  cloth  so  that  it  will  steam  and  soften.     With  this 

should  be  mixed  a  little  pot-cheese  or  custard.     The  custard  is  made  by 

adding  half  a  dozen  infertile  eggs  to  a  quart  or  two  of  milk  and  the  whole 

beaten  thoroughly  and  placed  in  the  oven  and  allowed  to  cook  by  slow  heat. 

This  custard  takes  the  place  of  meat,  which  in  some  form  is  a  necessity 

in     feeding 

chickens.      N  o 

kind    of    grain 

or    vegetable 

can  take  its 

place.       If 

custard   is  not 

fed,  some  kind 

of   meat   must 

be  provided, 

such   as    green 

cut  bone,  fresh 

meat  —  which 

is  better  cooked 

—  or      meat 

scraps,  which  may  be  sifted  and  the  coarser  particles  mixed  with  grain, 

about  one -tenth  to  one-fifth  weight.     If  skim  milk  is  to  be  had,  it  can  be 

fed  freely  as  a  drink  or  in  the  form  of  pot-cheese — or  both. 

If  the  chickens  cannot  get  to  grass,  green  food  of  some  kind  must  be 
provided.  The  best  vegetable  for  little  chickens  is  lettuce.  Cabbage  is 
also  very  satisfactory.  Chopped  onions  or  onion  tops  in  small  quantity  are 
particularly  healthful. 

Finely  cracked  grit  is  a  necessity  from  the  start.  It  should  be  mixed 
and  scattered  with  the  fine  grain  at  first.  It  should  also  be  kept  in  a  box 
where  they  can  help  themselves  at  all  times. 

In  case  of  sour  stomach,  which  is  indicated  by  gas  or  water  in  the  crop, 
feed  some  charcoal.  In  fact,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  some  of  it  where  the 
chickens  can  help  themselves. 

Water  should  be  given  from  the  start,  but  always  in  such  a  dish  that 


CORNISH    INDIAN    PULLET 
Bred  by  Mr.  \V.  Brent 


196 


The    Poultry    Book 


the  little  ones  cannot  get  wet.  Use  large  fountains  that  can  be  taken  apart 
and  thoroughly  cleaned  and  scalded  if  necessary. 

The  great  danger  in  watering  chickens  is  that  the  dishes  will  not  hold 
enough.  "When  chickens  get  out  of  water  they  get  too  thirsty,  and  then 
drink  too  much  when  it  is  supplied  them. 

The  six  things  to  keep  in  mind  when  raising  chickens  are : 

First,  keep  them  w^arm. 

Second,  keep  them  dry. 

Third,  keep  them  clean. 

Fourth,  keep  them  busy. 

Fifth,   keep  them  hungry. 

Sixth,  keep  them  growing. 


■^J^-- 


MISS   WATERER  S   MODERN    DORKING   COCKEREL 
Showing  good  fleshy  form  without  much  fat 


By  courtesy  New  York  Duck  Farm. 


Photo^rapli  furnished  by  MiUcr  Purzi. 


PEK.IN    DUCKS    ON    LONG    ISLAND 


FINISHING   FOWLS    FOR   MARKET 


Miller  Purvis,  Illinois 

"Though  in  our  work  we  often  fail. 
The  way  we  finish  tells  the  tale." — Carew. 

;T  is  not  uncommon  for  the  poultry  dealer  to  find  a  large 
number  of  fat  fowls  among  those  he  gathers  from  the 
farms,  but  it  is  a  comparatively  rare  thing  to  find 
finished  ones,  and  it  is  the  finishing  of  poultry  that 
determines  the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  While  a  fat 
fowl  may  sell  well  and  bring  the  highest  open  quota- 
tion, the  perfectly  finished  one  will  bring  the  fancy  prices  that  are  paid 
by  those  consumers  who  are  willing  to  pay  extra  for  extra  quality. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  feed  a  lot  of  fowls  until  they  are  very 
fat,  yet  such  fowls  may  not  be  finished  in  the  real  sense  of  the 
word  as  applied  to  poultry  prepared  in  the  best  manner  for  the  market. 
It  is  quite  easy  to  feed  a  flock  of  fowls  that  have  entire  liberty  until  they 
are  loaded  with  fat,  and  yet  they  may  lack  in  flavor,  and  when  brought  to 
table  may  present  anything  but  an  appetizing  appearance. 


igS  The  Poultry  Book 

The  poultry  consumers  of  this  country  do  not  recognize  the  difference 
between  a  fowl  that  has  been  simply  fattened  and  one  that  has  been  properly 
finished  as  readily  as  do  the  consumers  of  England,  France  and  other 
European  nations,  because  they  have  not  been  educated  up  to  the  point 
of  realizing  how  much  better  the  finished  fowl  is  than  the  merely  fat  one. 
The  fat  fowl  has  its  fat  distributed  on  the  intestines  and  immediately 
under  the  skin,  while  the  finished  one  will  have  the  fat  distributed  among 
the  fibers  of  the  flesh  in  very  small  globules.  In  the  process  of  cooking,  the 
fat  in  the  fat  fowl  will  melt  and  run  out  into  the  cooking  vessel,  leaving  the 
flesh  hard  or  stringy  according  to  the  way  it  is  cooked,  and  lacking  that 
delicious  flavor  that  belongs  to  the  flesh  of  fowls  properly  finished, 
while  the  flesh  of  the  finished  fowl  comes  to  the  table  sweet,  juicy  and 
tender. 

To  fatten  a  fowl  it  is  only  necessary  to  give  it  all  the  corn  or  other  grain 
it  will  eat  and  water  to  drink,  and  pay  no  more  attention  to  it.  Such  a  fowl 
will  sell  readily  in  the  American  market;  but  our  great  poultry-packing 
firms  soon  learned  that  when  such  fowls  were  exported  the  consumers 
rejected  them  as  not  being  first-class,  and  they  immediately  began  to  study 
European  methods,  and  up  to  this  time  no  method  has  been  discovered  that 
is  superior  to  those  which  have  been  followed  in  the  old  country  for  cen- 
turies. Some  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  manner  of  handling 
the  fowls,  and  the  rations  have  been  slightly  modified,  but  in  the  main  the 
processes  followed  are  those  of  the  old  country,  and  in  more  than  one  instance 
men  have  been  brought  from  abroad  to  inaugurate  European  systems  of 
finishing  in  this  country.  Because  fattening  fowls  requires  no  special 
skill,  and  can  be  done  by  any  one  who  knows  enough  to  throw  com  out  of 
a  corn-crib  with  a  scoop  shovel,  we  have  devoted  this  chapter  to  the 
finishing  of  fowls. 

Perhaps  the  importance  of  this  final  finish  may  be  made  more  clear  by 
relating  the  instance  in  the  experience  of  the  writer.  We  were  going 
through  one  of  the  largest  poultry-packing  plants  in  this  country  with 
the  manager,  observing  the  methods  in  use  and  inquiring  into  the  magnitude 
of  the  business,  when  it  occurred  to  us  to  ask  him  how  much  difference  there 
was  in  fowls  merely  fattened  and  those  properly  finished.  For  reply  he 
took  us  into  a  storeroom  where  some  thousands  of  fowls  were  disposed  on 
racks  before  being  packed.  Putting  his  hand  on  one  rack  he  said :  "  Here 
is  a  lot  of  birds  that  came  from  Arkansas.     They  are  just  ordinary  mongrels, 


Finishing   Fowls  for   Market  199 

but  have  been  well  fed.     To-day  these  birds  are  worth  nine  cents  a  pound, 
just  as  you  see  them." 

Going  over  to  another  lot,  where  an  inspector  was  engaged  in  sorting 
the  fowls  before  they  were  packed  for  shipment,  he  said:  "Here  is  a  lot 
of  birds  that  were  bought  in  Iowa  and  finished  in  our  place  here.  They 
were  mostly  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes,  well  fattened  on  the  farm 
and  finished  by  ourselves.     They  are  worth  sixteen  cents  a  pound  to-day. 


OUTDOOR    FATTENING    PENS 

but  I  wouldn't  thank  any  man  to  give  me  that  price  for  them,  for  I  can 
export  them  and  get  more  out  of  them." 

We  then  asked  him  if  he  would  pay  the  difference  in  value  between 
fowls  that  were  simply  fattened  and  those  that  were  properly  finished  if  the 
poultry  raisers  would  take  pains  to  finish  their  poultry.  He  said  he  probably 
could  not  afford  to  do  so  unless  such  finishing  became  common  enough 
to  make  it  possible  to  buy  poultry  in  large  lots  at  first  hands.  This  is  the 
substance  of  several  conversations  we  have  had  with  extensive  poultry 
buyers — those  who  do  business  amounting  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars  every  year. 

The  advantage  of  properly  finished  poultry  is  becoming  well  under- 


200  The    Poultry    Book 

stood  in  Canada.  Canadian  poultry  breeders  haye  created  a  great  demand 
for  their  product  by  sending  to  England  poultry  finished  in  every  sense  of 
the  word  and  as  English  consumers  have  been  educated  to  expect  it  to  be. 
Already  in  America  several  private  plants  are  producing  finished  poultry 
for  market  and  creating  a  demand  that  must  have  a  beneficial  efiect  on 
the  general  practice  in  this  country. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  managers  of  the  great  poultry-finishing  plants 
in  this  country  that  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  are  the  most  profit- 
able breeds  for  the  high-class  markets.  They  recommend  those  from 
whom  they  buy  their  supplies  to  breed  these  and  their  grades.  The  Indian 
Game  fowl  has  a  good  many  friends,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  making  any 
headway,  and  the  Asiatic  breeds  have  fallen  behind  in  the  race  for  popu- 
larity. The  Orpingtons  have  recently  been  introduced,  and  are  gaining 
ground  very  rapidly,  and  the  desire  to  secure  them  amounts  to  almost  a 
furore  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  They  promise  to  become  very  popular 
for  exporting,  as  they  have  the  white  skin  desired  by  foreign  consumers. 

The  smaller  breeds,  such  as  the  ]\Iediterranean  varieties,  the  Polish  and 
the  Hamburgs,  are  not  esteemed  for  market  purposes,  and  do  not  finish  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  They  are  kept  principally  for  eggs.  Of  the  French 
breeds,  the  Houdan  is  oftenest  seen,  but  these  are  not  numerous  enough  to 
make  any  showing  in  the  poultry  market,  although  they  are  beyond  a  doubt 
very  desirable  table  fowls.  A  very  few  Dorkings  are  kept  in  this  coiintry, 
and  these  mostly  by  fanciers  who  are  not  interested  in  market  poultry. 
While  they  are  among  the  best  table  fowls,  they  are  not  prolific  layers  and  do 
not  meet  the  American  demand  for  a  general-purpose  fowl.  The  Orpingtons, 
having  a  Dorking  cross  and  also  a  cross  of  blood  from  the  distinctively 
laying  breeds,  are  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  the  other  English  breeds,  as 
they  are  very  good  layers  as  well  as  good  market  fowls. 

Mr.  Weir  says,  "All  very  short-  and  close-feathered  birds,  as  a  rule, 
though  fine  in  flesh,  are  not  rapid  in  fattening ;  in  some  cases  they  will  not 
fatten  on  the  breast  at  all,  though  abundantly  so  on  the  back,  etc."  A  fowl, 
to  be  really  good  and  the  breast  meat  rich  and  mellow,  must  fatten  on  that 
part ;  otherwise,  however  deep  and  full  of  flesh  the  breast  is,  it  will  be  dry 
and  to  a  certain  extent  hard,  and  especiafly  if  it  is  to  be  served  as  cold 
fowl.  Therefore,  those  birds  that  fatten  evenly,  with  a  close,  square, 
well-fleshed  form,  prove  of  the  highest  quality.  A  long-breasted  bird  is  not 
so  good,  as  there  is  never  the   depth  of  flesh,  though  it  is  longer;   still,  the 


Finishing    Fowls   for   Market  201 

slice  that  can  be  cut  from  the  one  is  no  heavier  than  from  the  other,  while 
the  shorter  is  usually  the  richest  in  flavor.  The  long  breast  is  a  modem 
mistake. 

When  fowls  or  chickens  have  a  capacity  to  fatten  they  may  be  brought 
to  this  condition  by  being  kept  in  grass  enclosures  and  fed  liberally  three 
times  a  day — in  the  morning,  at  seven,  on  corn-meal  or  barley  meal 
and  oatmeal,  mixed  and  moistened  with  scalding  skim  milk,  or 
water  if  milk  can  not  be  had;  at  twelve,  on  scalded  wheat  and 
rice  mixed;  lastly,  on  ground  buckwheat  and  ground  oats  mixed, 
moistened  with  scalding  skim  milk;  or  they  may  have  a  trough, 
replenished  twice  a  day,  to  go  to  as  they  are  inclined.  In  this  way, 
when  of  the  age  of  four  to  six  months,  they  make  fine  and  very 
richly  flavored  fowls.  Or  if  a  grass  run  is  not  available,  the  birds  must 
be  put  into  a  room  or  coops,  but  the  small  runs  are  preferable,  and  the  birds 
are  better  flavored  and  at  the  same  time  firmer  and  more  healthy  in  their 
flesh.  In  all  cases  grit  or  fine  gravel  should  be  put  in  the  food  when  it  is 
mixed,  the  sexes  separated,  and  punctuality  as  to  the  time  of  feeding 
observed. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  the  process  of  fattening  as  now  used.  It  is 
the  same  as  that  used  thousands  of  years  ago  by  the  inhabitants  of  Delos 
and  others  who  were  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  their  poultry,  and  as 
such  have  a  world -time  lasting  fame. 

The  poultrymen  of  to-day  claim  an  excellence  and  an  advance  to 
which  they  are  by  no  means  entitled :  the  same  kind  of  food  is  used  now  as 
was  used  centuries  ago,  and  the  methods  adopted  for  feeding  in  England 
and  America  are  similar  to  those  followed  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  doubtless  long  before.  Poultry  has  been  one  of  the  most  valued 
adjuncts  to  the  farm  from  time  immemorial,  as  is  clearly  proved  by  the  law 
documents  and  books  of  household  expenses.  The  rearing  of  the  stock 
was  one  of  the  duties  of  the  poulterer  and  the  henwife,  while  the  fattening 
process  was  generally  a  business  by  itself,  as  presently  will  be  shown. 

Coop  Fattening 

The  coop  finishing  of  poultry  is  practically  the  same  as  it  was  in  the 
time  of  Columella  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  it  is  doubtful,  judging  by  the 
description  that  he  gives,  whether  we  have  better  table  fowls,  or  even  as 
good,  as  those  that  he  so  graphically  describes.     Even  then,  as  now,  the 


202 


The    Poultry    Book 


rearing  and  the  finishing  were  two  distinct  occupations,    for    he    says: 
"Although  it  is  the  business  of  a  poulterer,  and  not  of  a  husbandman,  to 

fatten  a  hen, 
nevertheless,  be- 
cause there  is  no 
great  difficulty 
nor  charges  in  the 
doing  it  I  have 
thought  it  proper 
to  give  directions 
concerning  it.  An 
exceedingly  warm 
place,  and  of  very 
little  light,  is 
requisite  for  this 
purpose,  wherein 
the  fowls  may  be 
shut  up  one  by 
one,  in  very 
narrow  coops  or 
in  hanging  baskets,  but  so  straightened  that  they  may  not  be  able  to 
turn  themselves."  This  closely  resembles  the  modern  French  method,  and 
is  almost  the  same  as  our  own,  with  the  exception  that  we  not  infre- 
quently put  more  than  one  bird  in  the  same  compartment.  Columella 
warns  the  poulterer  to  beware  of  lice  and  other  vermin,  and  to  take  precau- 
tions to  prevent  the  fowls  from  being  infested  with  such  pests,  as  they 
materially  retard  the  finishing  and  are  directly  opposed  to  the  well-being  of 
the  fowl  or  the  progress  of  the  process.  He  continues:  "But  they  give 
barley  meal  for  their  food,  of  which,  when  they  have  sprinkled 
with  water  and  kneaded  it,  they  make  pellets  and  fatten  the  fowls 
therewith ;  but  these  ought  to  be  given  more  sparingly  the  first  days, 
till  they  are  accustomed  to  a  greater  quantity,  for  indigestion  is  especially 
to  be  avoided,  and  as  much  must  be  given  them  as  they  can  digest. 
They  who  are  desirious  not  only  to  make  their  fowls  fat  but  also  tender, 
sprinkle  that  kind  of  meal  beforementioned  with  fresh  mead,  and  so  cram 
them.  Some  mix  one  part  of  good  wine  with  three  parts  water,  and  with 
wheat  bread  soaked  therein  fatten  the  fowl." 


SHAPING-BOARD 


Finishing    Fowls    for    Market 


203 


Then  ]\I.  Porcius  Cato,  who  died  in  the  year  of  Rome  604,  in  his  treatise 
on  agriculture  says  (Owen's  Trans.,  page  102):  "Cram  hens  and  geese 
thus :  Confine  tender  pullets  which  are  likely  to  lay,  make  pellets  of  flour 
and  barley  meal,  dip  them  in  water,  and  administer  them,  adding  a  little 
gradually  every  day,  judge  of  what  is  sufficient  for  the  pullets'  voracity. 
Cram  them  twice  a  day  and  give  them  water  at  noon,  and  let  not  the  water 
remain  before  them  more  than  an  hour.  Feed  geese  in  the  same  manner, 
but  give  them  drink  first,  and  twice  a  day,  and  give  them  food  twice." 
And  ]\Iarcus  Varro,  the  friend  of  Cicero,  who  also  wrote  a  treatise  on 
agriculture,  thus  observes  (Owen's  Trans.,  B.  11,  page  228) :  "  In  respect  to 
the  three  sorts,  the  Vallatic  poultry  is  mostly  fattened.  They  confine  them 
in  a^  warm,  narrow  and  dark  place,  for  motion  and  light  are  unfavorable  to 
fattening.  They  cram  them  with  pellets  made  of  barley  meal  mixed  with 
the  flower  of  darnel,  or  linseed,  and  some  spring  water,  having  taken  off  the 
large  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail.  They  feed  them  twice  a  day,,  observing 
from  certain  signs  that  the  first  meal  may  be  digested  before  they  give  a 
second.  Having  given  them  food,  they  clean  their  heads  of  vermin  and 
shut  them  up  again.     They  do  this  during  five  and  twenty  days.     Some 

cram   them  with  

wheat  bread  dipt 
in  water  mixed 
with  good  and 
well-flavored 
wine,  so  that  they 
make  them  fat 
and  tender  in 
twenty  days.  If 
they  become  fas- 
tidious from  too 
much  cramming, 
you  must  be  more 
remiss  in  propor- 
tion, and  after  the 
first  ten  days  you 
may  diminish  the 

quantity  in  that  ratio  that  the  twentieth  and  the  first  day  may  be  equal." 
We  might  almost  imagine  these    descriptions   were   written  by   one 


SHAPING-BOARD    WITH    WEIGHTS 


204  The  Poultry  Book 

who  had  visited  and  inspected  one  of  the  great  modern  poultry-finishing 
plants,  so  similar  are  the  methods  described  to  those  in  use  to-day.  In 
these  modern  plants  the  poultry  is  brought  from  the  farms  by  hucksters, 
who  go  about  the  country  for  this  purpose.  It  is  then  placed  in  small  cages, 
five  or  six  in  each,  and  fed  a  mixture  of  ground  grains,  the  mixture  usually 
containing  oats,  wheat,  corn,  barley,  and  sometimes  oil  meal.  This  is  mJxed 
with  milk  or  water  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  batter  and  fed  in  troughs 
arranged  outside  the  coops  or  cages.  As  soon  as  the  fowds  have  eaten  all 
they  will  the  troughs  are  removed  and  thoroughly  cleaned  The  feeding 
is  done  three  times  a  day,  and  it  takes  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  days  to 
finish  a  fowl,  the  time  depending  on  its  condition  when  the  process  was 
begun. 

The  cages  are  arranged  on  each  side  of  a  long  building,  in  tiers  five  or 
six  cages  high.  These  cages  have  a  solid  bottom  and  on  top  of  this  is  a 
slatted  bottom,  raised  one  inch  from  the  true  one.  This  allows  the 
droppings  to  fall  through  the  openings  between  the  slats,  where  they 
lodge,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  clean  the  cages  until  the  fowls  in 
them  are  finished.  No  water  is  given  during  this  finishing  process, 
as  the  food  is  wet  enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  fowls. 

The  cramming  machine  is  slowly  coming  into  use,  and  will  no  doubt 
soon  be  in  as  high  repute  in  this  country  as  it  is  in  France.  In  these  great 
plants,  as  soon  as  the  feeding  is  finished  curtains  are  drawn  along  each  side 
of  the  passageway  in  such  a  manner  as  to  shut  out  most  of  the  light,  leaving 
semidarkness,  which  induces  quiet  and  the  more  rapid  addition  of  weight. 
The  illustration  on  page  205  is  from  a  photograph  taken  by  the  writer 
during  a  visit  to  one  of  the  greatest  finishing  plants  in  the  United  States. 
It  shows  very  plainly  the  manner  of  arranging  the  cages  in  which  the  fowls 
are  confined.  It  also  shows  one  of  the  cramming  machines  mentioned  in 
this  connection,  and  the  old  English  poultryman  who  was  brought  over 
from  Sussex  to  instruct  American  attendants  into  the  mysteries  of  finishing 
fowls  by  the  English  method. 

Doubtless  in  England,  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation,  the 
keeping  and  the  fattening  of  poultry  was  common,  as  it  was  long  after 
in  the  time  of  the  Saxons  and  Normans,  for  mention  is  made  of 
fattened  capons,  capons  of  geese,  etc.,  in  some  of  the  early  records.  And 
later,  Polydore,  in  the  time  of  the  Henrys,  mentions  the  tenderness 
of  the  young  geese  and  the  Kentish  hens,  and  in  the   "Antiquities    of 


Finishing    Fowls    for    Market 


205 


Photograph  hy-Miller  Purvis 
INTERIOR   VIEW    OF   A    POULTRY-FINISHING    PLANT,   SHOWING   METHOD    OF   CRAMMING 

Hengrave,  in  Suffolk,  A.D.  1572,"  there  is  this  entry:  "To  my  M'"  as  to 
so  much  by  her  given  to  two  maids  w''  came  out  of  Essex  to  teach  the  maides 
to  fatte  capons,  xiiJ5.  xiijJ." — a  goodly  sum  in  those  days.  I  quote  this 
to  show  that,  more  than  three  centuries  ago,  in  England,  not  only  was 
good  poultry  raised,  but  the  finishing  process  was  a  separate  and 
desirable  art  to  learn  in  conjunction  with  the  breeding  and  rearing. 

Leonard  Mascall  (who  wrote  A.D.  1570)  says  that  for  "the  fattening 
of  bigge  chickens  in  the  coope  or  penne,  they  doe  commonlye  give  them 
steeped  bread  in  ale,  sometimes  of  dry  breade,  and  their  drink,  milk  and 
water,  or  of  soaked  bran  in  milke ;  and  sometimes  ye  must  give  them  barley, 
and  feel  them  one  after  another,  if  there  be  anything  left  in  their  crops,  for  if 
that  which  they  have  eaten  is  not  gone  and  consumed,  nor  their  craw  yet 
emptie,  that  signifieth  undigested,  and  like  not  the  meate,  then  give  them 
no  more  until  they  have  digested  that."  And  further  Mascall  says  of 
pullets:     "For  the  feeding  and  cramming  of  young  pullets,  a  verye  goode 


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way  is  this  to  make  them  fatte  and  tender  to  eate :  ye  shall  keep  them  in  a 
darke  place,  or  blmdfold  them ;  then  take  barlye  ground  small  and  sift  all 
the  branne  thereof,  then  they  doe  use  to  moysten  this  barley  meale  with 
warm  milke ;  and  some  take  ale,  and  some  beare,  and  so  they  cramme  and 
feed  them  morning  and  evening,  by  giving  them  as  much  at  once  as  they 

may  well  digest ; 
->  ^  and  to    h  e  1  p  e 

their  digestion, 
some  doe  mix 
with  their  meate 
of  mustarde 
seede,  or  anise 
seedes;  thus 
you  may  fat 
them  in  short 
space." 

G  e  r  V  a  s  e 
Markham,  and 
other  writers 
on  the  subject, 
during  the  six- 
teenth century, 
all  give  more 
or  less  similar 
advice ;  and  in 
some,  stones  or 
something  hard 
is  mentioned  as 
helping  diges- 

MR.    MATTHEWS'    PRIZE    STREAKY-BREASTED    BROWN-RED    OLD    ENGLISH       -^ion.  In        t  h  6 

GAME    COCKEREL  i  <    t,  r  ,  r 

J\I  y  s  t  e  r  y  ot 
Husbandry,"  by  J.  W.  (Worlidge),  A.D.  1681,  we  read:  "If  convenient 
places  or  houses  were  made  for  them  as  dark  as  may  be,  which  doth 
much  expedite  their  fattening.  Buckwheat,  either  ground  and  made  into 
paste,  or  whole  (the  former  is  the  better),  is  the  best  single  fatner  of  fowl, 
hemp  seeds,  as  they  say,  giving  an  ill  flavor  to  the  flesh  of  the  bird  that  feeds 
on  it ;  but  this  only  on  report ;  if  it  proves  otherwise,  it  would  be  one  great 


Finishing    Fowls   for   Market  207 

encouragement  for  the  planting  and  sowing  of  hemp  that  the  seed  should  be 
of  great  use."  In  another  place  we  find  this  advice:  "Most  certain  it  is, 
that  darkness  doth  much  conduce  to  the  fat'ning  of  any  creature ;  also,  rest 
and  sleep.  Gravel  not  a  little  availeth,  it  being  usual,  that  when  poultry 
are  penned  up  and  have  lost  their  appetite,  being  set  w^here  gravel  is,  they 
will  greedily  eat."  This  practice  has  always  been  that  of  the  intelligent 
poultryman,  even  to  the  present,  and  no  birds,  whether  cooped  for  finishing, 
or  other  purposes  confined,  were  expected  to  thrive  without  it,  broken  shells, 
or  very  coarse  sand.  The  modern  poultry  keeper  has  also  within  the  last 
few  years  made  this  discovery,  and  written  columns  in  favor  of  the  practice 
as  being  new,  though  known  for  centuries. 

During  the  last  century  the  following  methods  of  finishing  were  in 
vogue :  The  first  consisted  in  cooping  the  poultry  in  a  dark  place,  in  feeding 
the  fowls  abundantly  with  barley,  buckwheat,  or  maize,  either  of  these 
seeds  boiled  and  made  into  balls. 

The  second,  practiced  in  Maris  (France),  differed  in  that  instead  of 
letting  the  poultry  feed  at  liberty,  they  were  made  to  swallow  rolls  of  paste 
in  an  oval  shape,  about  two  inches  in  length  and  one  in  breadth,  made  of 
two  parts  barley  meal,  one  part  buckwheat,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
milk. 

The  third  method  was  accounted  more  expeditious  than  the  preceding. 
The  fowls,  being  put  into  rows  of  pens  and  placed  in  a  warm  place,  were 
crammed  two  or  three  times  a  day  by  means  of  a  funnel  with  the  meal  of 
barley,  wheat,  small  millet  and  maize,  soaked  in  milk.  A  small  quantity 
of  this  mixture  in  a  rather  liquid  state  was  given  them  at  first,  no  drink  being 
allowed.  The  dose  was  afterward  gradually  increased  until  the  crop 
was  filled  entirely,  allowing  time  enough  to  empty  it  in  each  case  before  the 
renewal  of  the  process,  in  order  not  to  disturb  the  digestion. 

The  cages  employed  in  the  third  method  were  a  series  of  small  pens,  in 
which  each  fowl  was  separate,  and  in  a  manner  cased  up  and  so  closely 
wedged  in  that  it  could  move  with  difficulty.  All  that  it  was  allowed  to  do 
was  to  thrust  its  head  through  a  hole  and  void  through  another.  With 
the  help  of  the  funnel  a  man  could  cram  fifty  fowls  in  half  an  hour.  The 
machine  used  was  similar  to  that  now  in  use  at  many  finishing  plants. 
Every  time  the  funnel  was  used  for  cramming  the  whole  number  it  was 
washed,  as  any  remains  of  food  on  it  would  become  sour.  The  chickens 
fed  in  this    manner   were   particularly   well   suited   to   poultry   dealers. 


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At  the  end  of  a  week  they  were  very  white  and  well  flavored ;    in  a  fort- 
night they  would  be  at  their  best. 

A  writer  in  "The  Family  Receipt  Book,"  1815,  gives  the  following  for 
fattening  poultry.  I  quote  it  because  it  indicates  the  general  use  of  gravel, 
now  called  grit,  for  the  healthful  feeding  of  cooped  birds:  "Poultry 
should  be  fattened  in  coops,  and  kept  clean.  They  should  be  furnished  with 
gravel  but  no  water ;  their  only  food,  barley  meal,  mixed  so  thin  with  water  as 
to  serve  them  for  drink.  Their  thirst  makes  them  eat  more  than  they  other- 
wise would,  in  order  to  extract  the  water  that  is  in  the  food.     This  should 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Weir 


RED    PILE 


Finishing    Fowls    for   Market  209 

not  be  put  in  troughs,  but  laid  on  a  board,  which  should  be  washed  clean 
before  fresh  food  is  put  upon  it."  Another  method  for  fattening  at 
this  period  was  one  then  much  in  vogue,  as  it  was  supposed  to  add  a  finer 
flavor  than  that  in  ordinary  use:  "Take,  for  the  purpose,  a  quantity  of 
rice  and  grind  or  pound  it  into  fine  flour.  Alix  sufficient  for  present  use  with 
milk  and  a  little  coarse  sugar;  stir  the  whole  well  over  the  fire,  till  it  makes 
a  thick  paste,  and  feed  the  chickens,  in  the  daytime  only,  putting  as 
much  as  they  can  eat,  and  no  more,  into  the  troughs  belonging  to  the  coops. 
It  must  be  eaten  while  warm,  and  if  they  have  also  beer  to  drink  they  will 
soon  grow  very  fat.  A  mixture  of  oatmeal  and  treacle,  combined  till  it 
crumbles,  is  said  to  form  a  good  food  for  chickens,  of  which  the}^  are  fond 
and  on  which  they  thrive  so  rapidly  that  at  the  end  of  two  months  they 
become  as  large  as  the  average  full-grown  fowls  fed  m  the  common  way." 

"About  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Mr.  Turner,  of  North 
Chapel,  in  Sussex,  a  tenant  of  Lord  Egremont's,  was  wont  to  fatten  about 
two  hundred  chickens  annually  to  a  size  and  prefection  not  known  else- 
where. The  food  given  them  was  ground  oats,  made  into  gruel,  mixed 
with  hog's  lard  or  grease,  sugar,  pot  liquor,  and  milk;  or  ground  oats, 
treacle,  and  suet,  also  sheep's  pluck,  etc.  They  were  kept  very  warm, 
and  always  crammed  in  the  morning  and  at  night.  The  pot  liquor  was 
mixed  with  a  few  handfuls  of  oatmeal,  then  boiled  up,  taken  ofl:  the  fire, 
and  the  meal  therewith  made  into  paste  and  divided  into  rolls  for  cram- 
ming. The  fowls  were  put  into  the  coops  a  few  days  previous  to  cramming, 
the  process  being  completed  in  a  fortnight.  Fowls  thus  fattened  would 
weigh  about  seven  pounds,  and  average  five  pounds,  though  some  arrived 
at  double  that  weight." — Sussex  Agricultural  Report. 

The  system  of  cramming  became  usual  w^th  the  hucksters  both  in 
Kent  and  Sussex,  and  fowls  of  large  size  and  weight  were  not  infrequently 
produced.  My  father  had  a  couple  of  pullets  from  a  farmer  of  Cuck- 
field,  Christmas,  1834,  which  weighed  one  ounce  more  than  twenty-one 
pounds,  the  food  used  in  this  instance  being  two  parts  oatmeal  to  one  part 
of  barley  meal  mixed  with  milk,  with  some  suet  and  a  little  sugar  added. 
Some  of  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  capons,  fully  fattened,  have  weighed  at 
Christmas  as  much  as  twelve  to  thirteen  pounds.  Latterly  the  sugar, 
treacle  or  molasses  mixture  has  been  abandoned  in  favor  of  oatmeal  and 
barley  meal  mixed  with  boiled  skim  milk. 

Formerly,  as  at  present,  the  best  fattened  and  finest  table  fowls  in  Eng- 


2IO  The  Poultry  Book 

land  were  to  be  found  either  in  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey  or  Bucks,  and  it  was 
from  these  counties  that  London  and  other  large  cities  or  towns  obtained 
their  chief  supply.  In  no  other  counties  was  so  much  care  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  the  breeding  stock  or  the  management  and  rearing  of  chickens. 
These  were  collected  by  hucksters,  some  going  on  foot,  with  nets  or 
coops  at  their  backs,  which  would  contain  one  dozen  to  two  dozen  chickens, 
according  to  size.  These  men  often  traveled  twenty  miles  a  day,  while 
others  with  a  horse  and  panniers  or  cart  would  far  exceed  this  distance. 

The  fowls  now  chiefly  kept  m  England  are  the  following :  The  Brahma- 
Dorking  cross — a  rough-and-ready  kind,  also  a  long-cherished  buff  cross 
with  the  Shanghai,  both  large -boned  by  comparison  with  older  and  better 
breeds.  The  Langshan  has  been  found  to  be  very  good,  but  in  some 
instances  it  does  not  thrive  well  in  the  fattening  pens. 

One  English  poultry  dealer  who  finishes  a  large  number  of  fowls  every 
year  and  is  very  successful  uses  the  following  method :  The  chickens  are 
taken  in  tops  or  crates  to  the  finishing  sheds  or  yards  and  at  once  placed  in 
the  pens.  If  not  "fasted"  they  are  kept  without  food  for  a  few  hours 
to  increase  their  appetites,  to  reconcile  them  to  feeding  in  coops.  The 
cages  are  in  long  lines,  about  breast  high,  and  are  lightly  constructed, 
having  the  backs,  fronts  and  bottoms  made  of  wooden  bars,  the  roof  and 
sides  of  close  wood  or  corrugated  iron.  Each  compartment  will  hold  four 
fowls,  with  just  room  to  turn  around.  In  some  cases  a  flat  board  is  in 
front,  on  which  the  food  is  placed.  In  others  a  V-shaped  trough,  or  parts 
of  zinc  water-chuting,  are  used.  The  cages  are  sometimes  covered  with 
canvas  drawn  down  in  front,  as  darkness  is  said  to  shorten  the  time 
required  for  the  process.  Usually  the  pens  are  placed  in  sheds  or  bams, 
which  are  kept  close  and  dark.  Warmth  being  essential,  ventilation  in 
some  cases  is  neglected  except  in  summer.  The  droppings  fall  through 
the  bottom  bars  of  the  pen  on  fresh  earth,  w^hich  is  removed  and 
renewed  periodically.  Cleanliness  of  the  pens,  and  frequent  washing 
with  lime-water  in  which  carbolic  acid  is  mixed,  is  considered  to  be 
essentials  to  success. 

The  period  of  finishing  varies  slightly,  some  responding  to  the  process 
and  the  kind  of  food  used  better  than  others,  but  it  is  seldom  less  than  from 
three  to  four  weeks.  The  chickens  are  fed  twice  a  day  on  ground  oats  (not 
oatmeal)  mixed  with  skim  milk,  enriched  with  fat  either  of  beef  or  mutton. 
This  dealer  feeds  quantities  of  AustraHan  mutton  tallow,  which  is  imported 


Finishing    Fowls   for    Market 


211 


in  barrels,  and  is  mainly  used  for  soap-making;  the  cost  is  $7.50  to  $10  per 
100  pounds.  The  fat  is  melted  and  mixed  with  the  ground  oats  and  milk,  to 
which  some  brick-dust  or  sand  is  added  as  a  digester.  For  the  first  two 
weeks  the  chickens  eat  naturally,  but  afterward  they  are  crammed  until 
finished.  The  operation  is  performed  rapidly  by  a  cramming  machine, 
which  now  supersedes  the  old  hand  process.     If  the  operator  is  experienced 


the  cramming  is  very 
of  the  machine  being 
mouth,  a  half  turn  of 
is  —  next,  and  —  next, 
machine  varies  from 
is  usual  to  kill  twice 
according  to  the 
ready  they  sicken  if 
plucking  and  stubbing 
women,  after  which 
breast  downward  on  a 
weight    placed  over 

One  curious  fact 
namely,  that  the 
is  far  greater  than  the 
several  finishers  who 
needs  in  this  respect  as 
one  hundred  dozens  per 

There  is  much 
capacity  of  fowls  for 
are  somewhat  long 
more  readily  than  the 
breeds.  Here  I  would 
fatten  generally,  if 
parts  on  which  the  plumage  grows.  Thus  on 
feathers   are    close,    the    fat   is   excessive,    as   also 


PROPERLY    FINISHED    PLYMOUTH 
ROCK   HEN 

Photoicrapk  by  courtesy  of  Miller  Purvis 


quickly  done,  the  tube 
inserted  into  the  fowl's 
the  crank,  and  then  it 
The  price  of  the 
$17.50  to  $22.50.  It 
or  three  times  a  week, 
demand,  but  when 
not  attended  to.  The 
is  mostly  done  by 
they  are  put  in  rows 
shaping-board  and  a 
them. 

remains  to  be  noted, 
demand  for  chickens 
supply,  and  there  are 
are  so  far  short  of  their 
to  advertise  for  at  least 
week  during  the  season, 
difference  in  the 
finishing,  those  that 
in  feather  taking  on  fat 
close,  short-feathered 
point  out  that  fowls 
not  always,  on  those 
the  back,  where  the 
about    the    neck  and 


belly;  while  on  the  breast,  where  there  are  open  spaces  between  the 
lines  or  tracts  of  the  feathering,  there  is  no  fat.  The  goose  might  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  the  difference  between  a  feather-covered  bird 
and  one  that  is  partially  so,  the  whole  body  of  the  former  being  enveloped 
in  layers  of  fat,  while  those  fowls  that  are  short-  and  close-feathered  on 


212 


The   Poultry    Book 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    HEN 


the  breast  seldom  if  ever  fatten  on  that  part,  though  they  may  be  fleshy 
and  well  formed. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  more  nutritious  the  food  given 
the  better  the  fowl,  but  experiments  have  proved  that  this  is  by  no 
means  always  the  case.  For  instance,  buckwheat  and  oatmeal  mixed 
have  not  been  found  so  serviceable  as  when  one-third  of  boiled  potatoes 
have  been  added.  Again,  ground  com  is  better  with  one-third  boiled  un- 
husked  rice.     Groimd  oats,  with  one  part  potatoes  or  some  boiled  cabbage, 


Finishing    Fowls    for    Market  213 

are  good ;  wheat  and  rice  boiled  together  are  good,  as  is  also  buckwheat  and 
one-third  potatoes,  with  a  finish  of  all  buckwheat.  The  old  finishers  never 
gave  hard  grain,  but,  if  whole,  soaked  it  at  least  twelve  hours,  or  boiled 
it.  In  all  cases  it  was  usual  to  add  some  gravel  or  very  sharp  sand. 
Sometimes  table  beer  was  used  in  the  latter  part  of  the  day  for  moistening 
the  food,  and  skim  milk  in  the  morning,  but  not  generally.  The  giving 
of  sugar  was  thought  to  make  the  birds  so  thirsty  that  they  would  eat 
more  of   the  mixed  food  for  the  sake  of  moisture. 

Preparing  for  Use  or  Market 

The  English  method  is  as  follows:  A  fowl  should  be  fasted  from 
twelve  to  twenty  hours  before  it  is  killed,  otherwise  it  soon  taints. 
When  a  fowl  is  ready,  or  sufficiently  fat  for  the  purpose  required,  the  usual 
plan  of  killing  is  that  of  breaking  the  neck,  which  by  an  adept  is  quickly 
and  painlessly  effected.  Another  method  is  bleeding,  which  is  more 
common  in  France  than  in  this  country.  With  some  the  fowl  is  stunned 
by  a  blow  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  if  bled ;  but  the  first  plan  is  the  most 
humane.  Immediately  after,  the  process  of  plucking  is  performed,  when 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  tear  or  injure  the  skin,  this  being  likely 
through  rough  usage,  especially  on  the  breast,  which  is  generally  first 
operated  on.  Then  the  feathers  on  the  back,  belly,  lesser  wing  coverts 
and  tail  are  removed,  leaving  the  head  feathers,  those  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  neck,  and  the  larger  wing  primaries  or  quills.  After  which  pluck 
away  all  feathers  but  those  of  the  head  and  neck.  So  quick  are  some 
of  the  American  pluckers  that  they  have  been  known  to  remove  the 
feathers  of  six  fowls  in  twelve  minutes,  while  man}^  of  the  English 
experts  are  not  a  minute  behind,  showing  that  practice  makes  perfect. 
The  birds  are  hung  up  to  slightly  cool,  then  taken  down,  and  their  legs  tied 
at  the  hocks;  they  are  placed  in  rows,  with  the  breast  under,  on  shaping 
boards,  another  board  then  laid  on,  with  weights  added.  They  cool  into 
shape.  When  cool  they  are  removed,  packed  into  crates,  and  despatched 
to  market.  Pullets,  cockerels  and  capons  keep  better  than  quite  young 
chickens  or  ducklings. 

We  have  purposely  given  in  considerable  detail  the  English  and  French 
methods  of  finishing  fowls,  and  also  the  methods  advised  by  ancient  writers, 
because  the  essential  facts  have  been  understood  for  hundreds  of  years, 
and  the  finishing  of  fowls  is  practically  accomplished  by  the  same  means  to- 


214  The    Poultry    Book 

day  that  were  in  vogue  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire.  In  this 
country  we  use  more  corn  than  in  other  countries  because  it  is  the 
cheapest  grain  food  we  have  and  is  essentially  a  fattening  food. 

The  American  method  of  preparing  for  market  is  somewhat  difi'erent 
from  that  in  use  in  England.  In  our  large  finishing  plants  the  fowls  are 
not  fed  for  twenty-four  hours  previously  to  being  dressed.  They  are  placed 
in  crates  and  taken  to  the  dressing-rooms,  where  an  attendant  catches  them 
and  hangs  them  by  the  feet  in  a  device  that  holds  them  fast.  This  device 
is  suspended  on  a  wire,  a  small  wheel  running  on  the  wire.  The  fowls, 
hanging  head  down,  are  then  pushed  forward  and  another  workman  kills 
them  by  deftly  cutting  the  artery  in  the  back  of  the  head  with  a  pointed 
knife.  As  they  are  pushed  along  on  the  wdre  support  in  a  continual  pro- 
cession they  come  to  a  tank  of  scalding  water,  where  they  are  taken  from 
the  support,  scalded,  and  quickly  returned.  Then  a  workman  makes  a  quick 
"grab"  and  pulls  out  a  handful  of  feathers,  and,  with  the  same  motion, 
pushes  the  bird  forward,  where  another  takes  out  another  handful,  and  so 
on,  each  workman  pulling  out  as  many  feathers  as  he  can  without  stopping 
the  bird  in  its  onward  course.  By  this  means  the  feathers  are  stripped  ofT 
in  an  incredibly  short  time,  and  a  line  of  birds  extends  the  whole  length 
of  the  long  wire,  all  progressing  toward  complete  dressing  all  the  time. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  save  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  without  wetting 
them,  these  are  pulled  out  before  the  bird  is  scalded  and  kept  separate  from 
the  softer  feathers. 

As  soon  as  the  feathers  are  all  stripped  from  a  fowl,  it  is  taken  from 
the  wire  and  laid  on  a  shelf  on  a  rack  specialh^  constructed  for  this  purpose, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  cool  until  all  the  animal  heat  is  out  of  the  body. 
The  birds  then  go  to  the  inspector,  who  rapidly  grades  them,  and  they 
are  packed  in  new,  clean  boxes  and  pressed  into  shape  and  taken  to  the 
freezing-rooms,  where  they  remain  until  taken  out  to  be  sent  in  refrigerator 
cars  to  market,  often  across  the  ccean. 

The  inspector  selects  the  birds  according  to  quality,  those  with  very 
short  thighs  being  put  by  themselves  and  reserved  for  the  English  market, 
being  sold  under  the  name  of  "Sussex  fowls,"  the  reputation  of  Sussex  in 
England  being  so  great  that  the  best  are  given  the  name  in  order  to  get 
a  better  price  for  them,  just  as  all  good  butter  is  sold  as  Elgin  butter. 

English  finishers  seem  to  think  cross-bred  fowds  better  than  the  pure 
breeds,  but  the  great  poultrv'  dealers  in  this  countr}^  do  not  agree  with 


Finishing   Fowls   for    Market 


215 


them ;  and  one  firm  that  handles  millions  of  fowls  every  year  has  been  at 
considerable  expense  to  teach  the  poultry  breeders  of  the  districts  from 
which  they  draw  their  supplies  the  advantages  of  using  only  pure-bred 
stock  in  their  breeding  pens. 

The  English  consumer  is  partial  to  a  fowl  with  a  white  skin,  while  the 
American  wants  yellow-skinned  fowls.  This  is  mere  fancy,  and  it  is 
probable  that  before  many  years  the  prejudice  that  exists  in  this  country 
against  white-skinned  fowls  will  disappear.  The  great  poultry -packing 
firms  of  the  country  do  not  finish  fowls  particularly  because  they  desire  to 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME,    AGRICULTURAL    HALL,    I  897 

do  SO,  but  because  they  are  compelled  to  do  so  in  order  to  get  the 
quality  the  best  markets  demand. 

The  most  profitable  part  of  poultry  breeding  is  in  this  final  operation 
that  finishes  the  fowl  and  puts  it  in  condition  to  command  the  highest  price. 

The  writer  has  seen  a  lot  of  ordinary  fowls  which  were  bought  at  six  or 
seven  cents  per  pound  put  in  the  finishing  pens  for  three  weeks  and  taken 
out  weighing  twenty  or  twenty-four  ounces  more  than  they  did  when  put  in, 
and  worth  more  than  twice  as  much  per  pound  as  they  were  when  bought 
on  the  farm  of  the  breeder  who  produced  them.  In  such  cases  the  finishing 
process  not  only  added  weight  to  the  fowls,  but  added  one  hundred  per  cent, 
or  more  to  the  value  of  the  weight  they  carried  before  the  process  was  begun. 

The  market  for  the  best  poultry  is  an  insistent  and  growing  one.     It 


2l6 


The    Poultry    Book 


has  never  yet  been  supplied  with  all  it  would  take.  Any  glut  in  the  market 
is  always  produced  by  an  oversupply  of  inferior  stufT,  which  does  not  meet 
with  a  ready  sale.  Any  poultry  breeder,  by  following  the  directions  given 
in  this  chapter,  modifying  them  to  meet  his  surroundings,  may  with  very 
little  trouble  be  able  to  meet  the  demand  that  will  rapidly  grow  for  properly 
finished  poultry.  Every  city  and  every  considerable  town  in  this  country 
would  consume  large  quantities  of  poultry  that  had  been  finished  properly,  if 
it  were  once  introduced,  for  its  superiority  to  poultry  as  ordinarily  fattened 
is  so  great  that  it  commends  itself  at  once  to  every  one  having  an 
opportunity  to  compare  the  two  qualities. 


DARK-BLUE    OLD    ENGLISH    GAI 
Aquarium  Fishery  Show.  1902 


h 

1 

M^l 

CONDITIONS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

H.   E.   Moss,    New   York 

]HE  fattening  or  finishing  of  poultry  by  any  special  process 
or  feed  with  this  definite  object  in  view  is  practically 
a  new  and  almost  unknown  industry  in  the  United  States. 
Until  two  years  ago,  when  the  writer  made  and  ex- 
hibited a  cramming  machine  at  several  of  our  large 
poultry  shows,  not  one  person  in  a  thousand  had  ever 
heard  of  such  a  thing,  and  many  who  saw  it  in  operation  protested  that 
we  should  be  prohibited  from  using  it  under  the  plea  that  it  was  cruelty 
to  animals,  due  of  course  to  their  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  bird. 

It  is  scarcely  ten  years  since  the  large  packing-houses  at  Chicago  and 
Kansas  City  took  up  the  poultry  and  egg  question,  which  has  since  grown 
to  be  such  an  important  branch  of  their  business  of  supplying  the  world 
with  meat  food.  Several  years  later  the  writer  urged  upon  them  the 
advisability  and  importance  of  either  the  producer  or  a  middleman  putting 
a  finish  on  thin  birds,  there  being  a  very  large  percentage  that  dressed  out 
as  No.  2  stock  which  had  either  to  be  worked  into  soup  or  canned, 
or  sold  at  a  reduced  price,  and  even  at  a  loss.  There  was  surely  an 
extravagant  waste  of  opportunity  on  the  part  of  some  one.  Here  were 
three-pound  chickens  with  their  frames  practically  grown — carcasses  that 
carried  about  six  ounces  of  bone,  eighteen  of  fat  and  but  thirteen  ounces,  or 
twenty-eight  per  cent.,  of  edible  meat,  when  such  a  bird  of  almost  any 
suitable  breed  could,  by  twenty  to  twenty-five  days  of  proper  feeding,  be 
made  to  carry  forty  ounces,  or  three  times  as  much  weight,  of  edible  meat. 
The  packers  realized  these  facts,  and  spent  both  time  and  money  in  what 
proved  a  futile  attempt  to  impress  upon  the  farmer  the  importance  of 
special  feeding  and  better  breeds,  so  as  buyers  of  their  stock  they  might 
be  able  to  secure  more  birds  of  the  quality  for  which  they  had  an  almost 
unlimited  demand,  and  fewer  of  the  unprofitable  kind.  They  recently 
took  the  matter  in  their  own  hands  and  to-day  there  is  scarcely  a  town  of 
any  size  in  the  States  west  of  and  tributary  to  Chicago  and  Kansas  City  in 


2i8  The  Poultry  Book 

which  there  is  not  located  a  buying  station  for  one  of  the  packers,  where 
birds  are  taken  from  the  farmer.  At  many  stations  they  are  coop-fed 
and  finished  before  being  dressed  and  sent  to  the  central  house  for  final 
grading,  packing  and  shipping. 

It  is  difiicult  to  understand  why  the  farmer,  who  has  every  facility 
for  properly  finishing  his  fowls,  should  waste  this  opportunity.  He  is 
very  careful  to  see  that  every  steer,  hog  or  sheep  that  he  sends  to  the 
shambles  is  carrying  all  the  weight  possible — but  he  thinks  it  costs  him 
nothing  to  produce  his  poultry  and  all  that  he  gets  for  it  is  clear  profit ; 
whereas,  if  properly  handled,  a  pound  of  grain  can  be  converted  into  more 
poultry  meat,  of  greater  value  and  in  less  time,  than  through  the  four- 
footed  animals. 

The  packers  are  not  the  only  ones  who  have  discovered  this  possibility. 
Since  1900  many  individuals  and  companies  have  gone  into  the  finishing 
business  in  the  western  States,  while  a  few  had  previously  been  established. 
Very  little  is  known  of  the  magnitude  or  methods  of  their  business.  Their 
No.  I  stock  is  almost  all  exported,  and  little  is  known  of  it  in  the 
eastern  markets.  The  New  York  Produce  Review  of  February,  1903, 
reports  one  shipment  of  seventeen  carloads  as  having  left  New  York  for 
Liverpool  on  the  steamship  Celtic. 

These  finishers  have  encountered  but  one  obstacle,  and  that  is  the 
unintentional  production  of  a  variable  and  uncertain  quality  of  meat,  and 
an  excess  of  fat  in  layers.  This  is  the  result  of  the  random  and  experimental 
methods  of  feeding  they  have  followed.  But  within  two  years  they  have 
made  much  advancement  in  producing  birds  of  the  color  and  finish  that 
foreign  markets  demand,  which  it  is  necessary  to  furnish  if  they  would 
obtain  the  prices  they  are  seeking.  The  farmer  sticks  to  corn,  which, 
perhaps  above  all  other  cereals,  makes  the  most  unsatisfactory  quality 
of  meat ;  but  as  it  produces  weight  and  is  the  cheapest  and  most  available 
grain,  he  supplies  it,  and  where  the  supply  is  unstinted  the  weight  is  gained. 
The  peculiar  nutritive  properties  of  corn  and  its  eftects  are  comparatively 
unknown  to  the  average  feeder.  It  has  a  special  tendency  to  deposit  a  soft, 
oily  fat  in  layers  under  the  skin  and  in  masses  in  the  abdominal  cavity, 
instead  of  depositing  this  fat  in  globules  throughout  the  tissue  where  it 
belongs.  In  corn-fed  birds  these  globules  are  watery  instead  of  being  fat. 
When  such  a  bird  is  cooked  these  oil  globules  escape  and  the  carcass  shrinks. 
If  oats,  barley  or  a  suitable  mixture  of  these  and  other  grains,  ground. 


Conditions   in   the    United    States 


219 


^i 


SLACK-BREASTED    PRIMROSE    DUCKWING    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCKEREL 
Owned  and  bred  by  Mr.  Weir 


were  used  as  a  base  in  feeding,  these  globules  would  consist  of  fat  which 
would  soften  in  cooking,  thereby  rendering  the  tissues  soft  and  juicy. 

Numerous  experiments  in  fattening  have  been  made  in  the  eastern  and 
New  England  States  in  the  past,  but  the  demands  of  the  eastern  markets 
always  having  been  for  a  yellow-skinned,  plump  bird,  there  appeared  but 
one  course  open  to  poultry  fatteners,  and  to  secure  it  corn  was  used  ad 
libitum.  As  a  result,  where  a  forced  diet  of  corn  was  fed — often  without 
the  safeguards  necessary  to  accompany  it — indigestion  and  liver  or  bowel 
trouble  followed  and  defeated  their  purposes,  which  discouraged  them  to 
such  an  extent  that  but  little  general  advancement  was  made  along 
this  line. 

The  western  men  have  outstripped  those  of  the  East,  and  it  is  a 
common  occurrence  to  find  25,000  birds  in  the  coops  of  one  establishment 
at  one  time  during  the  fattening  season.     These  are  ordinary  farm  birds, 


220 


The   Poultry   Book 


the  American  breeds    predominating,    and    largely    Plymouth    Rocks    or 
their  crosses. 

The  fattening  industry  is  in  its  infancy  in  this  country.  It  has  no 
past.  As  yet  we  have  nothing  here  with  which  to  make  a  comparison,  but 
we  are  safe  in  predicting  its  rapid  growth.  Many  cramming  machines  are 
now  in  use,  and  many  people  are  seriously  investigating  and  studying 
the  possibilities  of  both  trough  and  machine  fattening.  To  these  we  wish  to 
say  there  is  much  to  be  learned  before  the  maximum  results  can  be  attained, 
as  Mr.  Purvis  and  Mr.  Weir  have  clearly  shown  in  this  chapter:  The 
questions  of  how  much,  what  kind,  and  when  to  feed  it  are  the  vital  ones. 
Experience  will  teach  as  no  other  method  can.  The  question  of  best  breeds 
for  the  purpose  will  also  determine  itself  in  time.  The  writer  believes  the 
Dorking- Brahma  cross  would  prove  superior  to  any  for  the  purpose,  but 
it  would  take  many  years  to  establish  this  or  any  other  special  cross  to  the 
exclusion  of  others,  even  if  a  united  effort  were  made  in  the  large  poultry 
producing  sections. 


Photographed  f-y  C   Reid.   ll'i^ha 
OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    HENS 


'       'o^t  ?/      J  Prj,i,i>  Sc>i:./\  Canada 
MARKET   TYPES    OF    LIGHT    BRAHMA   AND    BARRED    PLYMOUTH    ROCK   CROSS   COCKERELS 
AS    BRED    AT    THE    CENTRAL    EXPERIMENTAL    FARMS    IN    CANADA 


THE    SITUATION  IN    CANADA 


Professor  A.  G.  Gilbert,  Ontario 


^HE  rapid  growth  of  cities,  with  corresponding  development 
of  population  and  augmentation  of  wealth,  has  created 
a  great  demand  for  the  products  of  the  farm  for  consump- 
tion both  at  home  and  abroad.  In  this  connection  we 
have  an  urgent  and  ever-increasing  call  for  a  superior  quality 
of  poultry  and  eggs  of  undoubted  freshness  in  winter,  the  latter  especially 
from  our  own  city  markets.  Opportunities  are  thus  afforded  our  farmers 
to  make  money  out  of  their  fowls  both  summer  and  winter.  It  is  of  the 
superior  quality  of  poultry  and  how  to  produce  it  that  we  more  particularly 
write  on  this  occasion.  There  are  undoubtedl}'  other  producers  of  the  finer 
quality  of  poultry  than  farmers,  but  we  speak  of  the  latter  because 
from  them  must  inevitably  come  the  great  bulk  of  the  supply.  This  supply 
will  not  be  from  the  few  farmers  with  many  fowls,  but  rather  from  the  greater 
number  with  comparatively  few  hens  each.  It  is  of  very  great  importance, 
then,  that  our  farmers  should  thoroughly  understand  the  necessity  of  pro- 
ducing nothing  but  the  best.  How  can  that  superior  quality  be  produced  ? 
Experience  has  unmistakably  shown  that  breed,  feed  and  proper  caring 


222  The   Poultry    Book 

for  the  chicken  after  hatching  and  during  its  tender  months  are  all  factors 
of  vital  importance. 

The  finishing  of  the  chicken  in  reality  begins  at  an  early  period  of  its 
existence.  It  has  been  shown  over  and  over  again  that  unless  the  chicken 
has  been  regularly  fed  and  carefully  looked  after  from  the  time  of  leaving 
the  nest  or  incubator  it  will  not  make  a  satisfactory  subject  for  fleshing 
in  coop  or  pen  with  limited  run.  There  is  a  world  of  truth  in  the  old 
English  maxim  that  a  chick  which  has  become  "stunted"  from  being 
' '  stinted ' '  of  food  will  never  fully  recover  from  such  neglect.  If  the  ' '  feed ' '  is 
not  altogether  half  the  "breed,  "  it  certainly  has  a  potent  effect.  And  again, 
a  bird  may  be  properly  reared  and  carefully  finished  and  yet  its  market 
value  much  deteriorated  by  improper  killing,  careless  plucking  or  clumsy 
dressing.  The  first  six  weeks  of  the  chicken's  life  has  been  found  to  be  a 
critical  period,  demanding  extra  care  and  attention,  for  during  that  time  there 
is  a  tax  on  its  vitality  for  bone,  sinew,  muscle  and  rapidly  growing  feathers. 

Before  proceeding  to  note  the  merits  of  different  breeds  it  is  well  to 
understand  the  requirements  of  the  market  to  be  catered  to.  We  have 
two  markets,  with  their  different  features,  as  follows : 

The  home  market,  w4th  a  high  price  for  winter  eggs  and  for  young  and 
tender  birds  with  yellow  color  of  flesh  and  legs. 

The  British  market,  which  gives  the  best  price  for  birds  three  and 
four  months  of  age,  with  legs  of  light  color  and  flesh  as  white  as  possible, 
and  eggs  large  and  of  even  size,  preferably  weighing  seven  to  a  pound. 

It  is  now  in  order  to  consider  which  breeds  most  acceptably  fill  the 
requirements  of  the  aforementioned  markets.  Heretofore  there  has  been 
little  difficulty  in  supplying  the  demand  with  one  or  more  of  the  well-known 
American  utility  breeds.  In  this  sense  the  term  utiHty  is  used  to  describe  a 
breed  which  is  a  wmter  layer  as  well  as  a  rapid  flesh -maker  in  spring  or  early 
summer,  thus  permitting  the  farmer  to  make  money  at  both  seasons.  In  too 
many  cases,  either  from  carelessness,  bad  management  or  ignorance  of 
proper  methods,  farmers  have  fowls  of  nondescript  origin  which  are 
non-productive  during  the  w^inter  season  of  high  values.  They  begin  to 
lay  in  spring  and  summer,  when  prices  are  very  much  reduced.  It  is 
needless  to  point  out  that  in  such  cases  only  half  value  is  obtained.  Where 
up-to-date  methods  are  practiced,  the  fowls  are  gotten  over  their  molt  by 
early  fall;  are  in  proper  condition,  being  neither  too  fat  nor  too  lean;  and 
so  comfortably  housed  and  intelligently  fed  that  they  begin  to  yield  their 


The    Situation   in    Canada 


223 


Photograph  by  Professor  Schutt,  Canada 

WHITE    WYANDOTTE    COCKERELS    AS    FINISHED    IN    CANADA    FOR   MARKET    AT    THE    CENTRAL 

EXPERIMENTAL    FARMS 

Hatched  March  31,  1902,  and  killed  when  3  months  and  22  days  old.     No.  17  :  Live  weight,  5  lbs.3  0zs.;  plucked  but  not  drawn,  4  lbs.  14 J^  ozs. 

No.  22:   Live  weight,  4  lbs.  7  ozs.;  plucked  but  not  drawn,  4  lbs.  2}^  ozs. 

product  in  November  and  continue  so  to  do  all  winter.  In  April  the  eggs, 
which  are  then  cheap,  are  converted  into  chickens,  which  will  mature  early 
and  bring  a  good  price.  We  do  not  refer  to  specialists,  who  begin 
operations  in  December  or  January  with  the  aim  of  producing  early 
broilers.  These  operators  are  in  most  cases  skilled  men  and  have  special 
equipment,  such  as  incubator  rooms,  brooding  houses,  etc. 

In  the  colder  districts  of  the  country,  unless  the  farmers  are  provided 
with  facilities  to  enable  them  to  be  independent  of  outside  temperatures,  they 
will  find  the  most  satisfactory  chickens  to  be  those  hatched  in  late  April  or 
early  May.  The  importance  of  having  a  grass  run  at  this  season  for  the 
chicks,  whether  hen  or  incubator  hatched,  can  not  be  overestimated. 

As  to  the  means  of  hatching,  where  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  chickens 
are  desired  early  and  of  uniform  age,  artificial  incubation  will  be  found 
most  satisfactory. 

Quite  possibly  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  germs  of  April  eggs  from 


224 


The    Poultry    Book 


hens  which  have  been  closely  confined  during  the  previous  winter,  yet  good 
layers,  are  not  likely  to  be  strong.  In  certain  cases  this  is  doubtless  true, 
but  observation  has  shown  that  the  majority  of  farmers  have  opportunity 
to  allow  their  fowls  to  run  in  bam  or  shed  during  winter  and  so  enjoy  exercise 
and  fresh  air,  so  conducive  to  fertile  eggs  and  strong  germs.  Where  laying 
hens  have  been  so  situated,  results  in  healthy  chicks  from  early  eggs  have 
been  most  satisfactory.  In  the  case  of  the  closely  confined  hens  without 
opportunity  for  outdoor  exercise,  experience  has"  shown  it  is  better  to 
defer  hatching  operations  until  they  have  had  a  run  outside  and  time  to 
recuperate  from  their  enforced  term  of  artificial  life  and  treatment. 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCK 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Neiv  1  ork  State  Exptritncnt  Station 
YARD    UF    CAPONS    AT    THE    NEW    YORK    STATE    EXPERIMENT    STATION    AT    GENEVA 


CAPONS   AND   CAPONIZING  * 


CAPON  bears  the  same  relation  to  a  cockerel  that  a  steer 
does  to  a  bull ;  it  is  an  altered  rooster.  As  with  steers, 
a  Capon  is  more  quiet,  lays  on  much  flesh  and  fat,  and 
remains  tender  for  many  months  after  the  operation. 
They  usually  weigh  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  more 
than  roosters  of  the  same  age,  if  kept  the  proper  length 
of  time.  For  a  few  months  after  caponizing  they  are  very  hearty  eaters, 
but  later  do  not  consume  appreciably  more  food  than  ordinary  fowls.  The 
comb  and  wattles  do  not  grow  after  the  operation,  while  the  feathers  of 
the  neck  and  saddle  develop  rapidly,  becoming  very  glossy.  They  neither 
crow  nor  fight,  and  do  not  chase  the  hens.  In  many  eastern  markets  the 
prices  paid  for  them  range  from  eighteen  to  thirty  cents  per  pound. 

Caponizing  was  in  existence  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago. 
It  was  the  impression  that  such  fowls  fatted  better,  and  were  of  finer  flavor 
and  quality.      At  first  hens  only  were  fed,  but  Pliny  says  fatting  cocks 

*This  chapter  has  been  carefully  rewritten  by  the  editor  from  an  American  point  of 
view.  In  Canada,  Capons  have  nrt  been  given  as  much  attention,  up  to  the  present  time, 
as  in  the  United  States. 

225 


226  The  Poultry  Book 

was  begun  by  the  inhabitants  of  Delos.  Beckmann  states  that  "These 
people  brought  the  art  to  such  perfection  that  they  became  instructors 
to  the  Romans,  among  whom  all  those  who  made  a  trade  of  feeding  fowls 
were  called  dcliaci/'  It  was  in  practice  also  with  the  ancient  Athenians, 
for  it  is  recorded  that  Arcesidans,  the  son  of  Scuthus,  on  being  asked 
"why  many  scolers  of  everye  secte  became  epicures,  but  none  of  the 
epicures  became  of  other  sects,"  he  said,  "because  the  cockes  were  made 
of  men,  but  never  men  of  cockes,"  or  as  some  say,  "Capons  be  made  of 
cocks,  but  never  cocks  of  Capons." 

In  course  of  time  the  Romans  followed  the  example  of  the  Greeks, 
who  had  long  known  that  the  feeding  of  cocks  could  be  much  improved 
by  rendering  these  animals  incapable  of  propagating  their  species.  As 
the  Delians  took  advantage  of  this  process,  and  acquired  the  greatest  dex- 
terity in  the  management  of  it,  they  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers. 
The  invention  of  this  art  is  not  known.  It  is,  however,  singular  that 
the  Greek  writers  mention  no  particular  name  for  Capon.  It  is  not  known 
whence  the  Romans  obtained  the  terms  "capo"  and  "capus. " 

Columella  and  Galen  make  mention  of  such  birds,  and  fed  on  food 
prepared  w4th  milk,  though  the  practice  of  caponizing  was  dissimilar  to 
that  now  employed. 

"How  old  our  present  method  of  making  Capons  may  be,"  says 
Beckmann,  "  I  do  not  know,  but  one  might  almost  believe  that  it  was 
practised  in  the  seventh  century,  because  Isidore  of  Seville  seems  to  say 
so,  unless  we  are  to  suppose  this  ecclesiastic,  not  being  fully  master  of  the 
subject,  wrote  merely  from  conjecture. 

"The  present  mode  was  no  doubt,"  continues  the  same  author,  "first 
practised  in  France,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it  was 
not  made  known  in  Germany  till  a  much  later  period,  when  the  princes 
began  to  fall  into  the  weakness  of  imitating  the  French  by  employing 
French  cooks.  La  Bruyere-Champier,  who  wrote  his  book  on  'Cookery,' 
in  1530,  says  expressly  that  the  art  was  a  new  invention.  Aldrovandi,  in 
the  year  1598,  treats  of  Capons,  and  adds  these  were  not  common.  Olivier 
de  Serres,  however,  in  his  treatise  on  'Agriculture,'  A.D.  1600,  speaks  of 
this  method  of  feeding  being  well  understood  in  his  day.  After  that  time 
the  word  poiilarde  was  not  used  as  before  to  denote  a  cock  which  had  been 
fed,  but  one  caponized  and  afterward  fed." 

Mr.  Weir  says:  "Surely  Mr.  Beckmann  m.ust  be  a  little  wrong  here. 


Capons    and    Caponizing  227 

the  word  poularde  usually  signifying  a  pullet  so  treated,  but  perhaps  it 
might  also  mean  a  caponized  cockerel."  About  1642  Vincent  Tanara, 
an  Italian,  stated  that  Capons  were  then  common.  In  1645  Lewis  Nonnius 
said  that  the  method  was  used  to  make  young  cocks  more  beautiful,  and 
had  but  lately  been  known. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  Germans  were  much  behind  in  adopting 
the  method.  Old  writers  mention  that  it  was  usual  in  France.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  usage  was  carried  from  that  country  to  Germany. 
Though  this  might  possibly  be  so,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  capon- 
izing was  known  and  used  in  England  long  before.  Professor  Thorold 
Rogers,  in  his  "Agricultural  Price  List,  "  gives  that  of  the  capon  as  2i^d.  in 
1261-70;  i3^d.  in  1271-80,  and  so  continuously  almost  every  ten  years 
until  1391-1400,  when  it  had  risen  to  35^  d.  After  this  there  is  frequent 
mention  of  it  at  feasts  and  banquets,  and  so  without  intermission,  more 
or  less,  to  the  present  time.  In  "Medieval  Agriculture,"  Vol.  I.,  it  states 
that  "  Fowls  are  kept  on  all  estates ;  Capons  on  most — before  1348."  Tusser, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  in  his  "Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus- 
bandry," says  in  his  cautioning  way — 

"  Who  many  do  feed, 
Save  much  they  had  need,  " 

and — • 

"  Put  chippings  in  dippings,  use  parings  to  save. 
Fat  Capons  or  chickens,  that  lookest  to  have," 

and  again — ■ 

"  Leave  Capon  unmeet, 
Dear  fed  is  unsweet,  " 

which  evidently  means  that  it  is  not  to  be  done  with  costly  grain  or  food, 
for  he  further  says — 

"  Though  fat  fed  is  dainty,  yet  this  I  thee  warn, 
Be  cunning  in  fatting,  for  robbing  thy  barn." 

Shakespeare  later  mentions  Capons  in  his  plays  no  fewer  than  a  dozen 
times,  and  often  in  eulogistic  terms,  as — 

"  With  good  Capon  hned." — As  You  Like  It. 

"But  to  Carve  a  Capon  and  eat  it." — i  Henry  IV . 

"You  Cannot  feed  Capons  so." — Hamlet. 

Andrewe  Borde,  writing  A.D.  1542,  says:  "  Of  all  tamefowle  a  Capon 
is  the  most  beste,  for  it  is  nutrytyve  and  is  soone  dygested.  A  henne  in 
wynter  is  good  and  nutrytyve,  and  so  is  a  chickyn  in  somer,  specyalle 
cockrellys  and  polettes." 


228  The   Poultry    Book 

Lawrence  Andrewe,  writing  in  the  sixteenth  century  in  "  Noble  Lyfe," 
says  of  the  Capon:  "  GalHnacius,  the  Capon,  is  a  gelded  cock,  and  because 
that  he  waxeth  the  soner  fatte,  and  though  he  go  with  the  hennes,  he 
dothe  not  defend,  nor  crowith  not." 

Leonard  Mascall,  also  about  the  same  period,  not  only  alludes  to  the 
Capon,  but  "gives  particular  instructions  as  to  the  best  means  to  be  adopted 
for  the  fatting:  "When  as  you  take  uppe  your  Capons  to  make  them 
fatte,  ye  must  prepare  of  wheaten  meale,  or  barlye  meale,  mixed  with  two 
parts  of  brawne.  Then  ye  shall  heate  ale  or  beare,  but  ale  is  better,  or 
lukewarm  worte,  and  therewith  temper  your  meale  and  brawne ;  some 
do  put  thereto  fresh  hog's  grease,  or  of  sheepe,  or  oil  of  olive,  and  when  it 
is  all  tempered  together,  they  take  a  small  piece  and  make  and  roll  it  be- 
twixt their  hands,  of  two  inches  long  or  more,  and  small  at  both  ends  like 
this  figure  O,  then  they  dippe  it  in  milke,  ale,  or  oyle,  and  give  a  Capon 
so  many  thereof  as  ye  shall  think  good,  to  a  great  Capon  xx  roles,  and  to 
the  other  as  ye  shall  see  cause ;  thus  ye  muste  feede  them  twice  a  daye, 
at  morning  and  evening,  and  so  ye  shall  make  them  fatte  in  a  month  or 
lesse,  but  always  ye  must  see  their  meate  digested  before  ye  give  them  any 
more,  for  some  be  of  a  slow  digestion,  and  if  ye  give  them  meate  upon 
meate  they  will  loathe  it." 

In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Gervase  ]\Iarkham,  in  his 
"Cheape  and  Good  Husbandry,"  says:  "Now,  touching  Capons,  the 
best  time  to  carve  or  geld  him  is  as  soon  as  the  dam  hath  left  them  or  they 
begin  to  crow,  for  the  act  of  carving  itself  is  both  easie  and  common,  and 
much  sooner  learned  by  seeing  one  carved  than  by  any  demonstration 
in  writing."  He  also,  like  Mascall,  gives  the  most  approved  method  of 
fatting,  thus:  "To  feed  capons  for  the  dish,  as  either  at  the  barn  door, 
with  scraps  of  corn  and  the  shavings  of  pulse,  or  else  in  pens  in  the  house 
by  cramming  them,  which  is  the  most  dainty ;  the  best  way  to  cram  a  Capon 
(setting  all  strange  in  ventures  apart)" — from  this  one  would  suppose 
that  even  at  that  period  there  were  certain  machines  or  appliances  in  use, 
or  why  are  such  alluded  to?  But  to  resume — "is  to  take  barley-meal 
reasonably  sifted,  and,  mixing  it  with  new  milk,  make  it  into  good  stiff 
dough ;  then  make  it  into  long  crams,  biggest  in  the  midst  and  small  at 
both  ends,  and  then  wetting  them  in  lukewarm  milk,  give  the  Capon  a  full 
gorge  of  them  three  times  a  day,  morning,  noon,  and  night,  and  he  will  in 
a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  be  as  fat  as  any  man  need  to  eat." 


Photograph,  by  courtesy  of  "  Commercial  Poultry  ' 
WHITE    WYANDOTTE    COCK 
Owned  by  Biltmore  Farms,  North  Carolina 


Capons    and    Caponizing  231 

This,  though  somewhat  the  same  as  ^lascah's,  differs  so  far  as  to  render 
it  desirable  of  notice  as  one  of  the  various  means  employed  for  coop- 
fatting  at  a  later  time. 

Other  authors  particularize  the  "capon";  poets  and  historians  allude 
to  it ;  culinary  books,  old  and  new,  have  recipes  for  the  cooking ;  at  Christmas 
Capons  found  a  place  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthy ;  the  landlord  had  Capons 
as  toll,  the  tenants  dined  off  their  own,  while  even  the  cottager  at  such 
festive  seasons  and  times  of  high  glee  had  a  tasteful  knowledge  of  what 
was  best  in  poultry. 

According  to  the  "Sandwich  (Kent)  Records,  1552,"  Capons  were 
not  neglected  as  propitiatory  gifts,  for  there  is  an  entry  to  the  following 
effect:  "The  Lord  Warden  being  late  come  to  Dover  Castle,  6  couple 
(of)  Capons  be  sent  him  as  a  pst.  (present  )  at  the  expense  of  the  town." 

Mr.  Weir  says :  "At  present  Capons  in  England  are  not  in  the  ascend- 
ant, the  big  and  coarse  being  the  satisfying  chick  of  the  people;  tenderness 
and  fine  flesh,  with  delicate  flavor,  is  unsought,  and  quality  is  not  the  con- 
sideration so  much  as  size,  with  its  concomitant  evils  of  hardness,  greasi- 
ness,  and  thick  skin.  The  man  who  tastes,  knows,  cares  for  and  appreciates 
what  he  is  eating — the  keen  old  epicure — is  a  thing  of  the  past;  and  it  is 
only  on  the  Continent  and  in  America  that  the  Capon  is  gastro- 
nomically  understood  and  valued.  In  Paris  the  finest  of  the  "  Creves  "  and 
"La  Fleche"  realize  as  much  as  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  francs  each, 
while  from  three  to  five  dollars  is  not  an  uncommon  price  in  New  York. 
The  French  Capon,  when  really  good,  is  in  its  way  the  perfection  of  poultry. 
It  is  generally  exposed  at  the  poulterer's  lying  on  the  breast,  showing  the 
back,  which  is  mostly  evenly  coated  with  white,  somewhat  dense-looking 
fat.     In  France,  and  now  in  America,  caponizing  is  very  prevalent. 

"Our  French  neighbors  make  use  of  the  Capons  to  rear  and  brood 
chickens.  In  this  they  are  very  successful,  one  Capon  often  leading  as  many 
as  from  fifteen  to  twenty  little  chicks.  After  the  process  of  caponizing, 
the  comb  is  cut  off,  so  as  to  readily  distinguish  the  birds  from  the  cockerels, 
and  these,  if  of  sufficient  size,  are  'bottled,'  and  not  only  preserved  for 
home  use,  but  exported  to  England  in  some  quantity.  For  this  purpose 
the  rose  comb  is  not  desirable.  The  variety  of  forms  and  sizes,  spiked 
or  simply  serrated,  clearly  disposes  of  any  argument  that  the  generality 
of  French  fowls  are  any  particular  or  uniform  breed. 

"  The  Capon  has  sometimes  been  made  to  incubate  two  sittings  of  eggs 


232  The   Poultry    Book 

in  succession ;  the  first  brood,  being  removed,  are  often  reared  to  a  certain 
size,  fatted,  and  sold  as  chicks — petits  a  la  gourmet.  This  plan  is  much 
in  vogue  in  Belgium,  in  which  place  the  dainty  morsels  are  principally  of 
the  Coucou  de  Malines  breed.  A  number  of  such  were  exhibited  at  the 
Smithfield  Show  of  1898.  They  attracted  considerable  attention  both 
by  their  novelty  and  even  quality.  I  was  assured  by  a  Belgian  poulterer 
that  this  practice  was  not  so  much  done  for  the  purpose  of  '  marketing ' 
small  delicacies,  as  more  often  for  the  want  of  space  after  second  broods 
were  hatched,  though  he  was  of  opinion  that  it  was  as  lucrative  as  those 
of  a  larger  growth  and  more  matured,  the  lesser  being  sought  for  by  invalids. 

"The  Capon  in  the  poultry  yard  has  a  sorry  time:  the  cocks  and 
cockerels  attack  him ;  hens  also  ill-treat  or  despise  the  '  combless '  object. 
Therefore  it  is  advisable  to  keep  Capons  apart  from  the  general  flock. 

"It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  Capon  to  bring  up  chickens,  but  for  a 
Game-cock  to  do  so  is  indeed  rare.  M.  Cliqueunois,  of  Lille,  had  an  Aus- 
tralian Game-cock,  which  was  placed  with  four  hens  on  a  walk  in  the  suburbs 
of  that  place ;  the  hens  all  began  to  sit  at  the  same  time,  leaving  the  coclt 
by  himself.  There  was  one  nest  unoccupied,  in  which  had  been  left 
several  artificial  eggs.  The  cock  took  possession  of  that  nest ;  he  sat  and 
clucked  for  a  week  or  so  before  attention  was  paid  to  him;  from  his  per- 
sistency it  was  thought  he  would  incubate.  Good  eggs  were  placed  under 
him,  when  he  continued  sitting,  and,  after  three  weeks,  four  chickens 
were  hatched.  The  Editor  of  the  American  Game  Cock  Monthly,  January, 
1895,  says:  'We  saw  the  sitting  cock  last  June,  when  he  was  right  in  the 
midst  of  his  maternal  duties;  he  clucked  and  acted  just  like  any  hen,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  he  had  gone  through  many  hard  battles  in  his  life- 
time.    Such  proves  that  he  was  not  only  a  cock,  but  a  Game-cock.'  " 

Speaking  of  caponizing,  Michael  K.  Boyer,  of  New  Jersey,  says :  "Just 
when  the  art  was  introduced  in  America  I  cannot  say.  I  have  newspaper 
clippings  referring  to  caponizing  that  were  published  about  fifty  years 
ago,  which  shows  that  at  that  time  the  art  was  more  or  less  practised. 
Geo.  P.  Pilling,  of  Philadelphia,  a  noted  expert,  says  he  has  had  more  than 
forty-nine  years'  experience  in  the  manufacture  of  caponizing  instruments. 
'Philadelphia  Capons'  are  known  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  These  birds  come  mostly  from  New  Jersey  and  other  nearby 
States.  Pilling  says  Philadelphia  and  vicinity  was  the  pioneer  section 
for  raising  Capons.     As  the  fame  of  the  bird  spread,  it  naturally  took  on 


Capons   and   Caponizing  233 

the  name  of  its  marketing  center.  In  1888,  W.  H.  Rudd,  of  Massachusetts, 
wrote  that  about  5,000  Capons  were  sold  in  Boston  annually,  mostly 
during  January,  February  and  March.  Generally  the  supply  was  exhausted 
by  April  loth.  The  average  price  was  about  twenty-two  cents  per  pound, 
but  if  very  nice  and  large  they  brought  two  cents  per  pound  more.  They 
would  weigh  about  eighteen  pounds  or  upward  per  pair.  The  Plymouth 
Rock,  -Light  Brahmas  and  Partridge  Cochins  were  generally  used.  In 
1892,  Capons  in  the  Philadelphia  market  sold  for  twenty-five  cents  per 
pound,  while  roosters  brought  only  six  cents  per  pound.  The  usual  price 
charged  for  caponizing  by  experts  was  from  four  to  six  cents  per  bird. 
Capons  come  into  market  about  the  time  early  broilers  are  shipped." 

Doctor  Richard  Schmidt,  a  well-known  American  breeder,  says:  "In 
the  spring  of  1891  I  caponized  167  cockerels,  ate  a  good  many,  treated 
several  of  my  friends  to  a  Capon  dinner  that  Christmas,  and  shipped  a 
barrel  of  Capons  to  New  York  City,  from  which  I  reahzed  $31.50  net  profit. 
There  were  twenty  Capons  in  the  barrel,  and  they  dressed  210  pounds  at 
about  eleven  months  old.  They  were  incubator-  and  brooder -raised,  and 
fattened  like  pigs,  in  a  row  of  coops  each  18x18  inches  and  2^  feet  high, 
giving  them  all  the  corn  and  wheat  they  could  clean  up. 

"The  mortality  of  Capons  in  1891  was  1.67.  I  lost  two  out  of  167, 
one  being  my  first  and  the  other  my  fifth.  The  latter  was  lost  on  account 
of  the  use  of  a  pair  of  scissors  with  which  I  thought  to  facilitate  the  opera- 
tion. Having  a  very  rebellious  spermatic  cord  to  twist  off,  I  snapped  it 
in  two  with  my  scissors,  since  which  time  I  have  had  no  use  for  scissors 
in  caponizing,  for  my  would-be  Capon  passed  quietly  away,  a  victim  of 
'^ hemorrhagica  interna  arteria  spermatica,"  a  very  easy  and  apparently 
painless  death.  Since  1891  I  have  caponized  some  cockerels  each  year, 
both  for  myself  and  my  friends." 

A  large  buyer  of  poultry  in  Iowa  recently  wrote  the  editor  of  the 
Reliable  Poultry  Journal  as  follows:  "To  dispose  of  the  cockerels  which 
usually  predominate  in  the  hatches  at  a  profit  has  been  one  of  the  problems 
for  the  poultryman  and  one  that  he  has  not  completely  solved.  Caponizing 
offers  to  him  a  new  and  fertile  field  of  operation,  one  that  will  yield  him 
great  profits  and  whose  hidden  treasures  cannot  be  exhausted,  as  food  is 
always  a  staple.  By  the  process  of  caponizing  one  bird  can  with  less  cost 
to  the  producer  be  made  to  bring  from  sixty  to  eighty-five  cents.  A 
dozen  birds    can  be  made  to  return  from  seven  to  nine  dollars.      One 


234 


The    Poultry    Book 


buyer  here  paid  out  $2,347  for  Capons  alone  in  December,  January  and 
February,  1896-97.  One  farmer's  wife  that  winter  brought  in  100  Capons 
that  brought  her  $90.  The  next  season  she  sold  no  for  $97.50.  When 
Capons  bring  from  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound  at  our  depot,  while  hens 
sell  at  five  to  six  cents  per  pound,  the  wisdom  of  caponizing  is  plain." 

The  photograph  reproduced  herewith  shows  just  how  Capons  should 
be  dressed  for  market.     The  feathers  are  left  on  the  neck,  legs,  wings  and 


Photografh  by  courtesy  of  New  YorA  Slate  hxperzmcnt 
CAPONS   DRESSED    FOR   MARKET   AT   THE    STATE    EXPERIMENT    STATION    AT    GENEVA,   N.  Y. 
SHOWING   MANNER    OF    LEAVING    FEATHERS 


rump,  as  well  as  the  tail.  Otherwise  Capons  should  be  dressed  the  same 
as  other  fowls,  except  that  they  should  be  dry-picked.  It  would  be  impos- 
sible to  scald  them  and  leave  part  of  the  feathers  on.  If  scalded. 
Capons  bring  no  more  than  other  fowls.  They  are  distinguished  more  by 
the  way  they  are  picked  than  any  other  manner.  Capons  are  in  the  best 
demand  in  the  Chicago  market  from  November  ist  to  May  ist.  Highest 
prices  usually  prevail  from  January  to  May.  The  larger  the  birds  the 
more  they  bring  per  pound.     Capons  that  weigh  less  than  seven  pounds 


Capons    and   Caponizing  235 

do  not  bring  any  more,  as  a  rule,  than  common  fowls.  If  well-bred,  a 
Capon  may  weigh  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds.  Such  a  bird  will  sell 
for  two  to  three  dollars,  while  a  cock  of  the  same  size  will  not  bring 
more  than  fifty  cents. 

When  raising  Capons  the  breed  should  be  carefully  considered.  The 
operation  should  be  performed  before  the  bird  is  three  months  old.  P.  H. 
Sprague,  a  prominent  dealer  in  Chicago,  says :  "  The  largest  Capons,  accord- 
ing to  our  information,  are  produced  by  crossing  a  Dorking  male  with 
Brahma  hens ;  the  best  in  quality  are  produced  by  keeping  the  pullets  of 
the  Dorking- Brahma  cross  and  mating  them  with  an  Indian  Game  male. 
Capons  thus  produced  combine  the  size  of  the  Brahma,  the  compactness 
of  the  Dorking  and  the  full  breast  and  juicy  qualities  of  the  Indian  Game. 
Other  good  crosses  may  be  made  by  using  a  Houdan  male  and  Brahma, 
Cochin  or  Plymouth  Rock  hens.  The  Dorking  or  Indian  Game  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  Houdan.  The  hen  should  always  be  large.  The 
form  and  quality  are  mostly  derived  from  the  size. 

"A  Capon  grows  and  fattens  on  a  small  amount  of  food.  The  first 
point  should  be  to  secure  large  frames,  and  fatten  them  after  they  are 
fully  matured.  If  the  Capon  is  produced  from  a  large  breed  it  should 
have  plenty  of  time  for  growth — about  fifteen  months — for  every  pound 
is  valuable.  The  food  should  be  nourishing,  but  not  fattening.  Corn  is 
unnecessary  until  near  the  t,me  for  fattening.  Wheat,  oats,  pounded 
bone,  meat,  milk  and  green  food,  all  that  it  can  eat  twice  a  day,  will  be 
sufficient  to  help  Capons  rapidly  in  growth. 

' '  Capons  should  be  put  in  a  small  yard  (not  too  crowded)  three  weeks 
before  being  sold,  and  fed  four  times  a  day,  giving  plenty  of  corn  and  also 
a  variety  of  other  food.  One  of  the  best  preparations  for  fattening  Capons 
is  corn-meal  and  ground  oats,  equal  parts,  adding  half  a  pound  of  crude 
tallow  to  every  quart  of  the  mixture.  Moisten  the  whole  with  skimmed 
milk  or  boiling  water  and  season  with  salt. 

' '  Buyers  are  not  so  particular  about  the  size  of  the  legs  and  skin  of 
the  Capon  as  they  are  of  its  size  and  attractive  appearance  in  other  respects, 
yet  a  yellow-leg  Capon  holds  an  advantage.  Yellow  legs  may  be  secured 
by  using  Plymouth  Rock  males  on  pullets  that  have  been  produced  by 
mating  a  Dorking  male  and  a  Brahma  hen.  Such  a  Capon  will  be  of 
excellent  quality  and  will  always  bring  a  good  price.  Light  Brahma 
males  are  also  mated  with  Cochin  hens  in  order  to  secure  large  Capons, 


236  The    Poultry   Book 

but  they  do  not  have  that  full  breast  which  is  imparted  by  the  Houdan, 
Dorking  or  Game.  If  the  color  of  the  legs  is  of  no  consequence,  the  Houdan 
male  and  Langshan  hen  produce  excellent  Capons  when  mated. 

"The  comparison  of  a  well-bred,  well-kept  and  well-fed  Capon  with 
a  cock  of  the  same  breeding  will  show  that  where  a  cock  reaches  ten  pounds 
weight  in  a  given  period  of  time  the  Capon  will  weigh  one-third  more, 
and  the  difference  in  price  is  three  to  four  times  as  much.  If,  instead  of 
keeping  the  yards  full  of  useless  and  unprofitable  cockerels,  caponizing 
were  resorted  to,  there  will  be  a  greater  desire  to  have  more  cockerels 
hatched  than  pullets.  By  keeping  good  breeds,  neighbors  may  be  induced 
to  use  the  eggs  for  hatching  purposes.  Then  the  surplus  cockerels  may  be 
bought  at  a  slight  advance,  as  they  will  prefer  to  keep  the  pullets  for  their 
own  use.  By  then  providing  the  neighbors  with  pure-bred  males  every 
season  there  would  be  no  limit  to  the  supply  of  eggs  for  hatching  cockerels 
for  Capons." 

Several  years  ago  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
at  Geneva,  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  with  Capons,  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  Doctor  William  R.  Wheeler.  In  his  report  (Eleventh 
Annual  Report  of  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station)  on  this 
work  he  says:  "The  much  higher  prices  at  which  Capons  are  quoted, 
compared  with  those  of  the  average  of  poultry,  ha\'e  led  to  many  inquiries 
being  made  in  regard  to  the  profit  in  growing  them  for  the  market.  When 
we  remember  that  beef  cattle  have  been  fed  in  this  State  during  recent 
years  at  very  small  profit,  and  that  often  to  find  an}^  profit  in  producing 
pork  it  has  been  necessary  to  take  into  account  the  advantage  of  using 
skim  milk,  etc.,  and  to  consider  the  manurial  value  of  the  grain  fed,  we 
may  find  it  well  worth  while  to  learn  the  cost  of  any  possible  animal 
product  of  the  farm  that  will  command  a  good  price  in  the  market.  " 

In  this  report  Doctor  Wheeler  records  the  results  obtained  in  feeding 
several  lots  of  Capons  for  the  months  during  which  they  are  usually 
grown,  beginning  in  August  and  September,  when  young  cockerels  are 
old  enough  for  caponizing,  and  continuing  until  February,  at  which  time 
the  birds  are  so  nearly  mature  and  the  growth  becomes  so  slow  that  it 
is  only  a  question  of  holding  them  longer  or  not  for  higher  prices. 

In  the  feeding  trials,  Doctor  Wheeler  says,  skim  milk  was  as  profitably 
fed  to  Capons  as  to  young  chicks.  With  every  lot,  sweet  skim  milk  was 
fed  during  nearly  all  the  time  in  place  of  water,  and  much  of  the  time 


Capons   and   Caponizing  237 

constituted  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  total  food.  Of  the  water-free 
substance  consumed,  the  skim  milk  supplied  from  nine  to  nineteen  per 
cent.,  generally  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent.  Fowls  of  several  breeds 
and  a  few  crosses  w^ere  used:  Light  Brahma,  Buff  Cochin,  Plymouth 
Rock,  Black  Langshan,  Indian  Game,  Indian  Game-Light  Brahma 
cross,  Indian  Game-Buff  Cochin  cross,  and  White  Plymouth  Rock-Black 
Minorca   cross. 

The  cockerels  were  caponized  at  an  average  weight  of  3.8  pounds. 
The  average  weight  of  those  caponized  at  smallest  size  (Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks)  was  2.7  pounds,  and  of  those  at  largest  (the  Light  Brahma)  4.8 
pounds,  when  the  operation  was  performed.  While  the  former  recovered 
from  the  operation  much  more  rapidly,  the  latter  made,  after  recovery, 
much  the  more  rapid  and  profitable  growth. 

The  average  loss  in  weight  from  the  thirty-six  hours'  fasting  and 
operation  was  11.2  per  cent.  Within  five  days  thereafter  the  birds  had 
generally  recovered  the  weight  lost,  so  that  seven  days  from  the  time  of 
the  removal  found  the  cockerels  back  in  the  pen  as  Capons  at  the  same 
weight  (the  average  showed  a  slight  increase  of  three-tenths  per  cent.), 
with  but  the  additional  cost  for  food  of  that  consumed  during  the  five 
days. 

"  No  bird  among  those  grown  at  the  station  died  during  the  experiments 
directly  on  account  of  the  operation.  The  loss  of  one,  some  weeks  after 
caponizing,  was  due  more  to  an  oversight  in  after-treatment  than  to  the 
direct  effect  of  the  operation  itself.  To  make  sure  of  killing  no  birds,  it 
is  occasionally  necessary  to  leave  some  with  almost  the  assurance  of  their 
developing  into  slips.  Even  the  mast  expert  professional  operators  expect 
to  kill  a  few  birds. 

"The  excess  that  the  average  market  prices  show  over  the  cost  for 
food,  however,  is  enough  to  promise  a  fair  profit,  over  an  ordinary  per 
centage  of  loss,  for  any  reasonable  investment  of  labor,  etc.  The  cost  of 
caponizing  where  the  services  of  any  expert  operator  can  be  obtained  is 
but  a  few  cents  per  fowl,  sometimes  as  low  as  four  cents.  After  a  fall  in 
the  high  broiler  prices  of  spring  and  early  summer,  it  will  probably  be  found 
more  profitable  to  caponize  the  surplus  cockerels  than  to  market  them, 
especially  where  cheap  skim  milk  and  grain  are  to  be  turned  into  a  market 
product.  For  while  often  the  per  centage  of  profit  over  the  cost  of  food  in 
selling  at  broiler  age  is  greatest,  the  actual  difference  per  fowl  in  market 


238  The   Poultry   Book 

price  over  cost  of  food  is  greater  with  the  Capon,  providing  the  latter  is 
sold  before  growth  has  ceased.  After  caponizing,  the  labor  in  caring  for 
and  feeding  is  but  little  more  than  in  feeding  cattle  or  pigs,  and  the 
proportion  of  labor  to  produce  one  hundred  pounds  of  Capons  is  therefore 
less  than  in  the  production  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  broilers,  as  the  latter 
have  most  of  the  time  been  with  the  hen  or  brooders. 

"As  the  demand  for  Capons  does  not  come  from  those  who  are  looking 
for  the  cheapest  possible  animal  food,  it  is  evident  that  effort  should  be 
made  by  any  grower  toward  improvement  in  quality,  and  the  most 
successful  and  profitable  competition  will  probably  be  in  this  direction. 

"It  is  better  to  use  only  the  larger  breeds  for  Capons,  and  the  Brahmas 
and  Cochins  are  among  the  best,  but  while  these  breeds  furnish  poultry 
of  superior  size  and  excellent  quality,  there  is,  compared  to  the  Game,  an 
undesirable  deficiency  of  breast  development  which  is  plainly  noticeable 
in  the  dressed  fowl.  At  the  New  York  Poultry  Show  in  1892  the  first 
prize  was  given  by  a  competent  judge  to  a  Capon  eight  and  one-half 
months  old  of  Indian  Game- Buff  Cochin  cross  over  Capons  young  and 
old  of  Light  Brahma,  Black  Langshan,  and  two  or  three  other  breeds 
and  crosses.  A  cross  of  the  Indian  Game  gives  nearly  as  large  fowls  as 
the  pure  breed,  with  much  of  the  Game  shape.  This  cross  can  probably 
be  used  with  advantage,  for  the  Indian  Game,  while  larger  than  the  pit 
Game,  has  little  of  the  fighting  spirit  of  the  latter,  and,  having  yellow  skin 
and  legs,  will  not  interfere  with  the  common  prejudice  in  that  direction.  It 
is  not  probable,  however,  that,  did  such  prejudice  exist  in  a  market  demand- 
ing the  best  of  Capons,  it  would  be  hard  to  overcome  where  good  fowls  of  such 
breeds  as  the  Dorking,  Houdan,  La  Fleche  and  Langshan  were  to  be  had. 

"The  labor  required  in  feeding  Capons  is  less  than  with  young  chicks. 
The  cost  of  caponizing  is  small  where  expert  services  can  be  obtained, 
and  an  expert  should  be  employed  where  possible.  The  methods  of 
operation  can  be  learned  from  the  printed  instructions  accompanying 
several  of  the  different  sets  of  instruments  advertised  and  sold,  but  any 
one  endeavoring  to  teach  himself  should  operate  on  several  dead  cockerels 
before  attempting  to  operate  on  a  live  one. " 

Directions  for  Caponizing 

The  following  complete  and  interesting  account  about  caponizing 
is  taken  from  Success  with  Poultry.     From  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours 


Capons   and    Caponizing 


239 


METHOD    OF    HOLDING  FOWL  READY 
FOR   CAPONIZING 


before  preforming  the  operation,  select  such  cockerels  as  you  intend  to 
caponize  (these  should  be  from  two  to  four  months  old) ,  confining  them  in 
a  clean  and  airy  coop  or  room  without 
either  food  or  water.  The  best  time 
to  confine  them  is  at  early  morning, 
as  their  long  fast  will  then  end  about 
noon  of  the  following  day,  at  which 
time  the  operation  is  best  performed. 
Should  the  day  be  cloudy  or  wet,  do 
not  caponize  them,  but  let  the  opera- 
tion go  until  you  have  a  bright  and 
fair    day.     It    is   necessary    that    you 

have  all  the  light  possible  in  the  matter.  If  it  be  a  cloudy  day,  and 
you  decide  not  to  caponize,  the  birds  may  be  given  a  little  water  and 
food  if  necessary,  but  it  is  much  better  to  avoid  this  if  possible,  as  it  is 
very  desirable  to  have  their  intestines  quite  empty,  thus  allowing  their 
testicles  to  be  more  readily  seen,  besides  giving  the  operator  much 
more  room  in  which  to  perform  his  work.  Lay 
the  bird  on  the  operating  table  (Fig.  8)  on  its 
left  side.  Wrap  the  cord  (Fig.  2)  twice  around 
the  bird's  legs,  above  the  knees.  In  making  one 
wrap  only  there  is  danger  of  the  birds  kicking 
themselves  out  of  the  loop.  Hook  the  other  cord 
once  around  both  his  wings,  close  to  the  body.  To  the  opposite  end  of 
these  cords  attach  a  half  brick,  or  some  other  weight,  letting  them 
hang  over  the  sides  of  the  table.  This  holds  the  bird  securely.  Have 
all  your  instruments  in  readiness,  that  you  may  work  quickly.  Thread 
the  canula  (Fig.  3)  with  a  strong  and  long  horsehair  or  fine  steel  wire 
(we  think  wire  the 
best),  letting  the 
wire  form  a  loop  at 
the  curved  end,  and 
extend  well  out  at 
the  other  end. 
Now,  after  slightly 
wetting  the  spot,  proceed  to  pluck  the  feathers  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
last  two  ribs  and  just  in  front  of  the  thigh  joint.     Pull  the  flesh  on  the  side 


FIG.   2.      KNIFE    FOR    KILLING 
POULTRY 


FIG.   3.        CAPONIZING  CANULA 


240  The    Poultry    Book 

down  toward  the  hip,  and  when  the  operation  is  finished  the  cut  between 

the  ribs  will  be  entirely  closed  by  the  skin  going  back  to  its  place.     While 

^^^^_^  holding   the    flesh  back  with   the  left 

(f----"^^^?"^^'^^'?^^  hand,    with    the    right  hand  take  the 

knife    (Fig.    4)   and  insert   it    (cutting 

FIG.  4.      K.\ii-K  i-i)k  .makim;  clt 

edge  away  from  you)  between  the  last 
two  ribs,  cutting  first  down  and  then  up  a  little  way,  following  the  direc- 
tion of  the  ribs,  making  the  cut  not  more  than  one  inch  long.  Cut  deep 
enough  to  go  through  the  skin  and  flesh,  being  very  careful  not  to  go  so  deep 
as  to  cut  intestines.  There  is  little  danger  of  doing  this,  however,  if  they 
are  empty,  as  they  will  be  from  the  bird's  long  fast.  The  danger  of  cutting 
the  intestines  is  when  they  are  full,  as  in  this  state  they  press  against 
the  ribs.  Should  the  cut  bleed,  stop  a  moment,  let  the  blood  clot  on  the 
thin  skin  covering  the  bowels,  and  then  remove  it  with  the  spoon  forceps. 
Next  take  the  spring  spreader  (Fig.  5),  press  it  between 
the  thumb  and  finger  until  the  ends  come  together, 
and  insert  the  ends  in  the  incision,  with  the  spring  end 
toward  the  bird's  feet.  Upon  looking  into  the  cut  a 
thin  tissue-like  skin  will  be  seen  just  under  the  ribs 
and  enclosing  the  bowels.  Take  a  sharp  hook  (Fig.  6) 
and  pick  the  tissue  open,  so  that  you  may  get  into 
the  bird  with  the  instruments.     The  breaking  of  this  ^"^'-  5- 

°  SPRING  SPREADER 

skin  does  not  cause  the  least  pain  to  the  bird.  One  of 
the  testicles  w^ll  now  be  brought  plainly  to  view,  lying  close  up  to  the  back  of 
the  fowl.  Sometimes  both  testicles  are  in  sight,  but  this  is  not  generally 
the  case,  as  the  other  one  lies  beyond  and  more  on  the  other  side  of  the 
bird,  the  intestines  preventing  it  from  being  seen  from  this  opening.  The 
testicle  brought  to  view  is  enveloped  in  a  film.  This  should  be  brought 
away  with  the  testicle.  Some  people,  in  caponizing,  tear  the  skin  open 
and  then  take  the  testicle  out.  The  danger  in  so  doing  is,  that  if  this 
skin  is  left  there  is  danger  of  causing  a  "slip." 

Now   comes   the    only   dangerous 
<  part    of   the   whole  operation,  getting 

FIG.  6.    SHARP  HOOK  TO  OPEN  FILM-LIKE     hold   of   and   rcmovlug    the   testicles  ; 

SKIN 

but  w4th  a  steady  hand  and  plenty  of 
Hght  not  one  bird  in  fifty  should  be  lost.  Attached  to  the  testicle  and  lying 
back  of  it  is  one  of  the  principal  arteries  of  the  fowl,  and  this,  if  ruptured. 


Capons   and   Caponizing  241 

is  sure  to  cause  death.  It  is  here  that  the  canula  (Fig.  3)  proves  of  great 
advantage.  The  hair  (or  wire) ,  being  small  and  very  fine,  is  easily  slipped 
between  the  testicle  and  artery  without 

injury   to    either,    and   a    clear,   clean      (T^  _  . ., 

cut   made.     Take   the   canula   in   the 

FIG.   7.       CAPONIZING  PROBE 

right    hand    and    adjust    the   hair   (or 

wire)  in  it  so  that  a  loop  about  one-half  inch  long  will  extend  from 
small  end  of  tube,  leaving  the  two  ends  of  wire  extending  far  enough  out 
of  the  open  end  to  secure  a  good  hold.  Insert  the  end  of  the  tube  that 
has  the  loop  on  it  very  carefully  and  slip  the  loop  over  both  ends  of  the 
testicle  and  entirely  around  it,  holding  end  of  tube  close  to  the  testicle. 
When  the  testicle  is  entirely  encircled  by  the  loop,  take  both  ends  of  the 
wire  (or  horsehair)  which  comes  out  of  the  other  end  of  the  tube  with 
thimib  and  first  finger,  holding  it  tight,  and  draw  up  on  it  carefully  but 
firmly,  being  particularly  careful  to  have  the  loop  around  testicle.  Keep 
the  end  of  the  tube  very  close  to  testicle  all  the  time.  If  drawing  up  on  the 
wire  does  not  at  once  cut  testicle,  slightly  turn  from  one  side  to  the  other 
(but  not  entirely  around),  then  the  testicle  will  come  off.  After  removing 
it,  carefully  examine  inside  of  bird  to  see  that  no  piece  is  left  in,  and  also 
to  see  that  no  foreign  substance,  such  as  feathers,  etc.,  has  gotten  in. 
If  any  have,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  them,  for,  if  allowed  to  remain,  they 
are  liable  to  cause  inflammation.  Sometimes  part  of  the  testicles  or 
a  feather  may  drop  among  the  bowels ;  if  this  occurs,  move  bowels 
around  with  probe  (Fig.  7)  until  the  object  is  found,  then  remove  with 
spoon  forceps.  When  the  operation  is  performed,  remove  the  spreader 
at  once  and  the  skin  will  very  soon  slip  back  over  the  cut 
and  heal  in  a  short  time.  Never  sew  the  cut,  as  it  will 
heal  just  the  same  as  any  other  small  flesh  wound. 

The    bird    can    now  be  turned  over  on  its  right 

side,  cut  made,  and   testicle  removed  in  exactly  the 

same    manner    as   just    described    for    the    left    side. 

Both  testicles  may  be  taken  out  with  the  one  incision, 

FIG.  8.  TABLE  SUITABLE  t>ut    to  thc  bcgiuner  we  would  say  this  is  attended 

'TlarJ^scIL^''      with    more    difficulty    than    the  two   incisions.     The 

other    testicle    being    situated    so    far    over    on    the 

other  side,  there  is  more  difficulty  in  reaching  it,  besides  danger  in  piercing 

artery  running  back  of  first  testicle.     To  an  experienced  person  there  is 


242  The    Poultry    Book 

no  danger  in  removing  both  testicles  from  one  incision,  but  to  those  who 
have  not  that  degree  of  confidence  given  by  practice  we  would  recommend 
the  two  cuts.  The  bird  recovers  just  as  quickly  as  though  one  cut  were 
made,  and  the  operation  is  performed  equally  as  quick,  if  not  quicker. 
If  both  testicles  are  removed  from  one  cut,  the  lower  must  always  be  taken 
out  first,  for  if  the  top  is  first  removed  the  small  amount  of  blood  that  may 
follow  will  cover  the  lower  one,  keeping  it  from  view. 

The  Best  Time  to  Capoxize 

Fowls  hatched  early  in  the  spring  make  the  finest  Capons.  They  can 
be  cut  before  hot  weather  comes,  which  is  a  great  advantage,  although 
no  ill  results  follow  the  operation  at  any  time  in  the  year.  The  bird  should 
be  from  two  to  three  months  old  (not  more  than  six  months),  and  weigh  not 
less  than  from  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half.  The  size  is  equally  as  im- 
portant as  the  age.  June,  July,  August,  September  and  October  are  the 
months  generally  taken  for  caponizing,  for  the  reason  that  spring  chickens 
arrive  at  proper  age  and  weight  for  market  during  the  months  of  January, 
February,  March,  i\pril  and  May,  at  which  times  there  is  the  greatest 
demand  for  them  in  the  cities,  and  the  highest  prices  secured.  That 
Capons  are  in  our  markets  at  certain  seasons  only  is  because  the  demand 
is  far  in  excess  of  the  supply.  The  time  will  be  when  Capons  may  be 
obtained  the  year  round. 

The  top  of  an  ordinary  barrel  (see  illustration)  meets  all  requirements 
of  a  table,  admits  of  the  birds  being  easily  secured,  brings  them  to  the 
proper  height  with  the  operator ;  in  brief,  makes  as  good  a  table  as  can  be 
desired.  It  costs  nothing,  as  there  is  always  an  empty  barrel  lying  around, 
or  one  that  can  be  easily  emptied. 

The  question  is  often  asked:  "How  are  capons  to  be  fed?"  After 
caponizing,  give  the  bird  all  he  will  eat  of  soft  food,  and  let  him  have  plenty 
of  water.  Caponized  fowls  begin  to  eat  almost  immediately  after  the 
operation  is  performed,  and  no  one  would  think  for  a  moment  that  a 
radical  change  had  been  made  in  their  nature.  Now  leave  the  bird  to 
himself,  as  for  the  time  being  he  is  his  own  doctor.  It  is  well  to 
look  him  over  two  or  three  days  after  the  operation,  as  in  breathing 
the  air  sometimes  gets  under  the  skin,  causing  "wind  puff,"  or  a 
slight  swelling,  in  other  words.  Simply  prick  through  the  skin  at  the 
sides  with  a  sharp    needle,  gently   pressing   at  the  same  time,  when  the 


Capons   and   Caponizing  243 

air  will  be  expelled  and  the  Capon  relieved.  Within  ten  days  from 
the  operation  the  wounds  will  be  healed  over.  A  day  or  so  after 
caponizing,  the  bird  should  be  allowed  to  run  at  large,  treating  him 
just  the  same  as  any  growing  poultry  would  be  treated. 

Killing  and  Dressing  Capons  for  Market 

The  Capons  should  be  allowed  to  grow  until  at  least  one  year  old. 
By  this  time  they  will  have  attained  an  imposing  size.  Some  keep  them 
even  longer  than  a  year.  While  this  is  optional  with  the  raiser,  yet  we 
would  not  advocate  killing  them  under  one  year  old  if  they  are  being 
raised  for  market.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  dressing  of 
Capons  and  an  ordinary  fowl. 

When  the  capons  are  ready  for  market,  select  such  as  you  propose 
killing,  and  confine  them.  Keep  them  without  food  or  water  for  about 
twenty -four  hours  before  killing,  that  their  crops  may  be  entirely  emptied. 
Now  get  ready  your  place  for  killing  and  dressing  the  fowls  (if  you  have 
conveniences  in  the  chicken  house,  this  will  do  quite  well,  or  the  wood- 
shed, or  any  cool  outhouse),  and  drive  two  heavy  nails  or  wooden  pins 
about  one  foot  or  less  apart  in  an  overhead  beam.  Make  two  nooses  of 
strong  string,  each  noose  long  enough  to  hold  one  each  of  the  legs,  and  have 
the  Capons  hang  low  enough  to  pluck  with  ease.  Have  a  weight  of  two  or 
two  and  one -half  pounds  attached  to  a  hook,  and  when  the  bird  is  killed 
fasten  this  hook  in  his  lower  bill  after  you  hang  him  up  for  plucking.  The 
weight  holds  the  bird  in  position  while  picking  and  renders  the  operation 
much  easier. 

Next,  procure  a  table  to  dress  the  fowl  upon,  and  make  a  frame  on 
the  same  principle  as  a  small  box  without  the  ends  and  cover.  In  this  you 
lay  the  Capon,  back  down,  to  remove  the  intestines. 

When    everything    is    in    readiness,  take    your  Capon  and  suspend 
him    by    the    two    legs    from    the    nooses.      Catch    hold    of    his    head, 
and  with  your    poultry-killing    knife   (Fig.  9) 
cut    vein    at    back    of    throat,     through    the 
mouth.      Never    cut    this     from    the    out- 

.j  -r  1-  1  •  •  FIG.   9.        KNIFE   FOR  KILLING 

side.      immediately    upon    cutting    vein,    run  poultry 

point    of    knife    through  roof   of    the    mouth 

clear  into  the  brain.  This  operation  causes  what  is  termed  "drop- 
ping   the    feathers,"    making    them    come   off  more  easily.     As  soon  as 


244  The    Poultry    Book 

the  knife  enters  the  brain  the  bird  loses  all  sense  of  feeling.  Begin 
plucking  at  once. 

As  to  the  style  of  dressing,  the  feathers  are  left  on  the  wings  up  to 
the  second  joint,  the  head  and  hackle  feathers,  also  on  legs  half  way  up  to 
drumsticks,  all  the  tail  feathers,  including  those  a  little  way  up  the  back, 
and  the  long  feathers  on  hips  close  to  tail.  These  feathers  add  greatly 
to  appearance  of  the  bird  when  dressed,  and  are  also  a  ready  marker  from 
other  fowl  in  markets.  Never  cut  the  head  off,  as  this  is  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  bird.  A  Capon  may  readily  be  identified  among  a  thousand 
cockerels,  as  the  comb  and  wattles  cease  to  grow  immediately  after  capon- 
izing  is  performed.  Wash  head  and  mouth  well  with  cold  water,  being  care- 
ful to  remove  all  blood.  A  Capon  should  not  be  torn  in  plucking.  There 
is  no  danger  of  this  happening  if  proper  care  be  taken.  Place  the  plucked 
fowl  back  downward  in  the  box  frame  already  described.  Cut  carefully 
around  the  vent  and  pull  out  the  intestines.  These  will  be  found 
covered  with  fat,  which,  as  they  are  pulled  out,  should  be  pushed 
back.  When  the  end  of  the  intestines  is  reached,  insert  your  finger 
and  break  this  off,  leaving  everything  else  in.  As  may  be  expected, 
the  fat  will  be  found  very  heavy  around  the  opening,  and  if  slightly 
turned  outward  will  soon  become  hard,  which  will  give  a  rich  appearance 
in  this  portion  of  the  bird.  Let  the  birds  hang  in  a  clean,  cool  place 
until  thoroughly  cold.  For  packing,  use  a  new  box  of  the  required  size, 
lined  with  white  paper  (any  good,  clean  paper  will  do).  Pack  the  birds 
in  solid,  back  up,  being  careful  not  to  bruise  them.  Your  birds  are 
then  ready  for  market.  With  a  bird  not  torn  and  the  feathers  properly 
left  on,  you  have  a  fowl  which  for  inviting  and  "taking"  appearance 
it  is  impossible  to  equal. 

A  "slip"  is  neither  Capon  nor  cockerel.  He  is  much  inferior  to  the 
former  and  a  great  deal  worse  than  the  latter.  The  "slip"  is  caused  by 
not  entirely  removing  the  testicles.  The  smallest  fraction  left  in  the  bird 
will  grow  again  with  no  benefit  to  the  fowl. 

Our  first  advice  would  be,  "Keep  cool  and  make  haste  slowly."  If 
you  are  rather  tenderhearted,  read  the  directions  over  carefully  and  then 
try  your  hand  on  a  dead  fowl.  All  surgeons  do  this  in  the  first  place,  and 
probably  it  would  be  as  well  for  you  to  follow  their  example.  Have 
plenty  of  light.  It  is  impossible  to  properly  perform  the  operation  unless 
you  have  this.     After  your  first  performance  of  caponizing  you  will  be 


Capons   and    Caponizing 


245 


surprised  at  its  simplicity.  Always  keep  your  instruments  in  perfect 
order.  Before  using  the  knife,  see  that  the  edge  is  sharp,  and  that  the 
other  tools  are  as  they  should  be.  After  beginning  the  operation  of  capon- 
izing there  should  be  nothing  to  hinder  you  from  going  right  ahead. 


Pkuiugraph  by  courtesy  of"  Commercial  Poultry  ' 

SINGLE    COMB    BROWN    LEGHORN   COCK 
Owned  by  W.  G.  Warnock,  Illinois 


'^C 


^<l^ 


BUFF  SHANGHAI   COCK.       (FIRST   PRIZE.) 
The  properf'j  of  the  Uite  Mr.  Paukinson.     The  uinner  of  many  prizet!. 


PRACTICAL  POULTRY  HOUSES  * 
A.  F.  Hunter,  Massachusetts 

IN  THIS  CHAPTER  on  poultry  houses  the  purpose  has 
been  to  present  plans  which  have  approved  themselves 
in  the  experience  of  practical  poultry  men,  and  to  give  a 
sufficient  variety  of  plans  so  that  every  one's  taste 
and  circumstances  may  be  suited.  In  recent  years  the 
tendency  in  poultry  house  construction  has  been  toward  a  better  supply 
of  fresh  air,  especially  during  the  day,  when  the  fowls  are  naturally 
active  and  are  exercising ;  hence  the  prominence  given  to  house  plans  which 
combine  a  curtained-front  scratching-shed  with  a  close  roosting-pen,  or 
give  a  more  or  less  open-front  scratching-roosting  pen,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  attendant.  The  most  essential  points  in  a  poultry  house  are 
shelter,  warmth,  sunlight  and  fresh  (pure)  air;  and  that  plan  is  best 
which  judiciously  unites  these  essential  points, 

I.  Essentials  to  success  in  the  poultry  business.  Poultry  keeping 
is  an  exacting  business.  The  four  corner-stones  upon  which  success 
rests  are: 

(i)  Suitable  buildings  properly  located. 

(2)  The  right  food  skilfully  fed. 

(3)  Good  fowls  carefully  bred. 

(4)  Facility  and  ability  to  hatch  and  rear  chickens. 

To  these  should  be  added  a  willingness  to  work,  love  for  the  business, 
good  common  sense  and  marketing  ability.  Not  the  least  in  importance  is 
the  matter  of  building  the  poultry  plant. 

I.  Location. — The  location  should  be  dry.  If  the  ground  is  not 
dry  naturally,  it  should  be  made  so  by  drainage.  Damp  ground  means 
cold  ground,   because  rapid   evaporation   cools   the   soil.     It  also   means 

*  In  the  preparation  of  the  pages  on  "  Practical  Poultry  Houses"  free  use  has  been  made, 
by  permission,  of  the  matter  pubhshed  in  "Reading  Lesson  No.  loA,  "  Cornell  Reading 
Course  for  Farmers.  This  lesson  was  prepared  by  James  E.  Rice,  of  New  York,  and  issued 
by  the.  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

2^47 


248 


The  Poultry  Book 


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unhealthful  soil,  because  the  air  and  sunshine  cannot  penetrate  to  purify 
it.     Muddy  ground  means  dirty  feet,  and  dirty  feet  make  dirty  eggs. 

Air  drainage  is  as  important  as  soil  drainage.     Cold  air  settles  in  low 

places.      A    low    place,    though    more 

1^ soo' ■ — ".         sheltered  from  the  wind,  may  be  many 

degrees  colder  than  a  higher  spot  a  few 
rods  distant.  Therefore  avoid  locating 
poultry  houses  where  cold  strata  of 
air  can  settle.  Secure  warmth  by 
building  in  the  lee  of  a  windbreak  or 
m  front  of  farm  buildings  or  a  hill. 
Buildings  that  face  the  south  will  get 
the  largest  amount  of  exposure  to  the 
sun's  rays.  Other  things  being  equal, 
they  will  be  warmer  and  dryer  and 
more  cheerful.     An  exposure  from  two 

FIG.     I 

to  four  points  east  of  south  will  give  the 
most  shelter  from  the  prevailing  west  and  northwest  winds  of  winter,  and  is 
the  exposure  most  preferred  by  experienced  poultryrnen.  An  eastern  ex- 
posure is  usually  preferable  to  a  western  exposure,  barring  prevailing  winds 
from  the  east,  because,  like  flowers, 
hens  prefer  morning  to  afternoon  sun. 
2.  Steps  may  be  saved  by  studying 
the  form  and  location  of  the  biiildiiig. — 
The  form  and  location  of  poultry  houses 
have  much  to  do  with  their  convenience. 
Time  is  money.  Therefore  a  poultry 
plant  should  be  built  with  a  view  to 
saving  steps.  With  this  point  in  mind 
a  man  would  have  to  walk  1,320  feet 
to  go  the  rounds  of  the  sixteen  houses 
shown  in  Figure  i.  Most  men  feed 
their    fowls    three    times,    water   once, 

FIG.    2 

gather  the  eggs  once  and    clean  house 

once  daily,  making  six  trips  a  day,  which  would  require  the  attendant 
to  walk  7,920  feet  a  day,  or  547  miles  a  year.  Walking  four  miles  an 
hour,   it  would  take    136  hours,  and   at    12^2   cents  an  hour  would  cost 


. 300- 

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NORTH       YARD 

Practical   Poultry    Houses 


249 


$17.  If  the  sixteen  houses  are  brought  together  into  one  continuous 
house  (Fig.  2),  the  attendant  would  make  the  round  by  walking  540  feet. 
Six  trips  a  day  would  make  3,240  feet  a  day,  or  223  miles  a  year,  taking 
fifty-five  hours  and  costing  $6.97  per  year,  a  saving  of  324  miles,  of  eighty- 
one  hours  and  of  $10  a  year.  A  horse  and  cart  to  carry  the  feed  and  water, 
eggs,  litter,  cleanings,  etc.,  in  case  of  the  colony  plan,  and  a  trolley  through 
the  continuous  house,  could  be  made  to  save  two  or  three  trips  a  day — 
reducing  the  amount  of  travel  proportionately. 

4.  The  form  influences  the  cost  of  construction. — Houses  built  on  the 
colony  or  separate  plan  cost  more  to  build  than  a  continuous  house  of  the 
same  capacity.      (Figs,  i  and  2.)     One 

end  of  each  house  is  saved  by  bringing 
them  together.  Supposing  the  build- 
ings to  be  fifteen  feet  wide  and  six  feet 
high  on  the  sides,  the  lumber  saved 
would  amount  to  127^  feet  for  one 
house,  equal  to  2,040  square  feet  for 
sixteen  houses,  and  if  double-boarded 
such  buildings  would  require  4,080  feet, 
besides  other  materials  and  cost  of 
building.  The  colony  houses  are  much 
cooler  because  more  exposed. 

5.  Yards:     Fences    are    expensive  ^^^^ 
and  increase  labor. — To  fence   separate 

yards  for  the  pens  (Fig.  i)  would  require  twenty-seven  and  a  half  rods 
of  fence,  which  would  cost  about  $20.  Every  time  a  division  fence 
is  taken  out  each  flock  has  twice  as  much  liberty  as  it  had  before.  When 
all  the  division  fences  are  removed  each  flock  enjoys  sixteen  times  as  much 
liberty  as  it  had  before.  Fences  increase  labor.  The  labor  of  cultivating 
and  seeding  sixteen  yards  is  much  greater  than  it  would  be  if  all  were  in 
one  field.  Again,  one  would  have  to  open  and  shut  about  one  hundred 
gates  a  day  in  caring  for  the  stock  in  buildings  arranged  as  in  Figure  i. 
Large  flocks  can  pasture  in  the  same  field.  Hens  know  enough  to  return 
to  their  own  roosts.  The  biggest  bump  on  a  hen's  head  is  the  bump  of 
location  ! 

A  strong  argument  in  favor  of  yards,  however,  is  the  fact  that  fowls 
lay  better  when  not  permitted  free  range.     When  kept  in  semi-confinement 


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250 


The    Poultry    Book 


in  yards  sufficiently  large  for  healthful  exercise,  the  physical  energies 
are  not  dissipated  in  ranging,  but  are  conserved  for  egg-production.  This 
is  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  keeping  of  milch-cows  upon  the  soiling 
plan,  giving  all  needed  food  at  the  stable  and  permitting  from  two  to 
four  hours'  exercise  in  a  paddock  daily :  sufficient  exercise  for  good  health, 
but  no  ranging  in  search  of  food. 

6.  Features  of  large  and  small  yards. — As  a  rule,  make  them  long 
and  narrow.  Double  yards  are  desirable  (Fig.  2).  They  allow  one  to 
rotate  green  crops.     This  practice  converts  the  filth  which  would  become 

a  source  of  danger  into  a  valuable  food 
crop.  (Note  house  and  yard  plans  in 
subsequent  pages,  especially  the  north- 
and-south- yards  plan,  page  285.) 

Where  several  breeds  are  kept  or 
many  small  breeding-pens  are  desired 
the  following  plans  are  suggested  to 
save  steps  (Figs.  3  and  4).  The  shape 
of  the  fields,  the  slope  of  land  and 
location  of  the  other  farm  buildings 
will  have  much  to  do  with  the  shape  of 
the  yards  and  mode  of  access  to  the 
buildings.  Generally,  the  yards  should 
be  long  and  narrow,  to  facilitate  culti- 
vation. Two  rods  wide  and  eight  rods 
long  is  a  good  size  for  forty  or  fifty 
hens,  although  more  room  would  be  better.  This  permits  a  row  of 
fruit  trees  in  the  center  for  shade,  which  is  a  necessity.  If  the  nearest 
point  of  access  should  be  from  the  north  (Fig.  4),  it  would  be  better  to 
have  the  houses  on  the  west  at  B  instead  of  at  A. 

7.  Small  flocks  lay  best. — Ordinarily,  we  expect  to  get  more  eggs 
from  a  small  flock  than  from  a  large  one.  But  every  time  we  double  a 
flock  we  divide  the  labor.  From  forty  to  fifty  seems  to  be  about  as  large 
as  it  is  safe  and  economical  to  keep  together.  If  more  are  together  the 
weaker  are  crowded  and  the  individual  is  lost  sight  of. 

8.  Construction:  The  working  unit  in  building  a  hen  house  is  the 
floor  and  air  space  required  for  each  hen. — A  safe  working  rule  is  about 
five  to  six  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  from  eight  to  ten  cubic  feet  of  air 


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Practical   Poultry    Houses 


251 


space  for  every  fowl.  The  lighter  breeds,  because  more  active  and 
restless,  require  about  as  much  room  as  larger  breeds. 

Foundation  walls  should  be  built  deep  enough  to  prevent  heaving 
by  the  frost,  and  high  enough  to  prevent  surface  water  from  entering. 
Sometimes  grout  walls  may 
be  made  with  gravel  or 
small  stones  where  large 
stones  are  scarce;  or,  in 
the  absence  of  foundation 
materials,  the  building  may 
be  set  upon  posts. 

Bottom  of  sills  should 
be  one    and  ^o^l---""' 

one-half  feet    ~-.^^:i—- 

above  na- 
tural ground 

level  (Fig.  5),  and  the  ground  outside  should  be  sloped  down  from  bottom 
of  sills  so  as  to  turn  away  surface  water.  Inside,  the  pens  may  be  filled 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot  with  small  stones  or  coarse  gravel ;  then  about  six 
inches  of  dry,  sandy  loam  or  fine  sand.  This  loam  (or  fine  sand)  should 
be  carted  off  and  the  earth  floor  renewed  with  fresh  material  every  summer, 
at  the  annual  house-cleaning. 

9.     Square  houses  economize  lumber. — The  nearer  square  a  house  is 
, ^j-' ^  — other    things   being   equal — 


Sandor  Sandy    Loam 
Small  Stones  or.  Gravel 


Natural  Ground  Level 
FIG.    5 


iixJS''4S0  sq.ft. 


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B 


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oround 


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oround    ^^®  ^^^^  lumber  it  will  require. 
(Fig.  6.)     It  is  seventy- two  feet 
farther  around  house  A  than  it  is  around 
house  E,  both  having  the  same  number  of 
square  feet  floor  space.     If  the  sides  of  the 
house  are  six  feet  high,  then  one  thickness  of 
boards  would  take  6  x  72=432  feet.     If  the  house 
around     is  double-boarded  it  would  be  twice  as  great,  i.  e., 
864  feet,  besides   the   extra   material  required  for 
seventy-two  feet  of  frame-work,  building  paper,  nails, 
etc.     The   long,   narrow    house    is    colder    because    it 


99' 

arouna 


FIG.   6 

labor,   foimdation 

has  432  square  feet  more  of  exposed  surface. 

10.     Cost  and  value  affected  by  form  of  roof 


-The  shape  of  the  roof 


252 


The   Poultry    Book 


Total     Roo! 


Side 


-,/2' 


/J^' 


affects  the  value  of  a  poultry  house.  It  takes  the  same  amount  of  material 
to  build  a  gable  roof — a  one-pitch  roof  or  a  combination  roof,  if  the  pitch 
of  the  roof  and  the  ground  plan  are  similar.  ^(Figs.  7  and  8.)     The  shape 

of  the  roof  influences  the  cost  of  the 
sides  of  the  house.  If  we  assume  that 
the  window  is  six  feet  high  in  a 
building  fifteen  feet  wide,  it  would  be 
necessary  with  a  gable  roof  to  have 
/o/x"  both    sides    of    the    house  the  same 

height,  which  makes  more  interior  air 
space  than  is  necessary  and  requires 
the  rear  wall  one  and  one-half  feet 
higher  than  would  be  needed  with 
a  one-pitch  or  combination  roof.  A 
one-slope  roof  will  cost  the  extra 
lumber  to  build  three  feet  higher  in 
FIG.  7  front  than  is  required  by  the   combi- 

nation house.  If  an  alleyway  should 
be  desired  along  the  back  side  of  the  house,  or  if  a  large  garret  space  is 
desired,  the  gable-roof  style  of  house  will  be  the  most  economical  to  build. 
In  order  to  build  the  three  styles  of  houses,  each  taking  the  same 
amount  of  material  and  having  the  same  pitch  of  roof  and  floor  space, 
they  would  be  as  seen  in  Figure  9,  whichj  would  make  the  one- pitch  roof  too 
low  in  the  rear  for  convenience.  The  steeper  the  pitch,  the  greater  the 
comparative  expense  of  building  a  shed-roof  house,  as  compared  with  the 
gable  or  combination  roof  house  (Figs.  7  and  10).  The  steeper  the  roof  the 
greater  the  cost  for  roofing  and  the  longer  it  will  last.  Most  roofs  can  be 
one-fourth  pitch.     Shingle  roofs  should  generally  be  one-third  pitch. 

II.  Each  form  of  roof  has 
its  advantage  and  disadvantages. — 
The  single-span  roof  is  the  easiest 

to  build.     It  gives  the  highest  ver- Tota[  s^es ^^^^ 

tical  front  exposed  to  the  sun ' s  rays , ^oat 

which  are  reflected  back,  drying  the 

ground  and  making  a  warm  shelter.  It  throws  all  the  rain-water  to  the  rear, 
lessening  the  length  of  eaves-trough  one-half,  and  keeping  the  front  of  the 
house  dry,  where  no  eaves-troughs  are  used.     It  allows  the  windows  to  be 


Total    Roof 


iWft. 
igUtl. 


Practical    Poultry   Houses 


253 


placed  high  up.  A  tarred-paper  roof  will  last  many  years  longer  if  the  slope 
is  toward  the  north.  It  is  cooler  in  summer  if  not  exposed  to  the  vertical 
rays  of  the  sun.     The  gable  roof  provides  for  a  large  garret  space  which 

can  be  stuffed  with  straw,  making  the 
house  warmer  and  drier.  The  com- 
bination house  shares  in  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  each  of  the  others. 
12.  Alleyways  are  expensive  and 
do  not  always  economize  labor. — They 
occupy  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth 
the  entire  space  of  the  house,  which 
would  accommodate  from  one -fourth  to  one-fifth  more  hens  or  would  give 
the  regular  number  of  hens  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  more  room. 
From  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  a  building  is 
too  much  to  pay  for  a  free  passageway. 

Every  time  one  enters  the  pen  from  the  alleyway  he  opens  and  shuts 
twice  as  many  doors  as  he  would  in  a  similar  house  without  an  alleyway, 
if  one  passes  from  pen  to  pen  and  returns  outside  (except  in  case  of  a  full 
section  scratching-shed  house).  (See  Fig.  ii,  A  and  B.)  If  alleyw^ays  are 
boarded  up  tight  one  cannot  see  the  fowls  without  opening  the  doors.  If 
they  are  not  tight  they  encourage  drafts. 

The  nesting  and  roosting  conveniences  can  be  so  arranged  that  most 
of  the  work  may  be  done  from  the  alleyway,  which  might  be  a 
saving  of  labor.     But  in  so  doing  one  would  not  be  among 
his  fowls,  which  would  be  a  decided  disadvantage. 

Long  houses  should  always  be  divided 
by  tight  partitions,  either  cloth  or  board, 
between  every  two  pens  at  least,  to  avoid 
drafts.  Otherwise,  cold  and  dangerous 
air-currents  will  be  formed  whenever 
windows,  doors  or  ventilators  are  open. 
13.  Sunlight  is  a  necessity. — It  carries 
good  cheer  and  tends  to  arrest  or  pre- 
vent disease.     Too  much  glass  makes  a 

house  too  cold  at  night  and  too  warm  during  the  daytime,  because 
glass  gives  off  heat  at  night  as  readily  as  it  collects  it  in  the  daytime.  Much 
glass  makes  construction  expensive.     Allow  one  square  foot  glass  surface  to 


254 


The    Poultry   Book 


about  sixteen  square  feet  floor  space  if  windows  are  properly  placed.  The 
windows  should  be  high  and  placed  up  and  down  rather  than  horizontally  and 
low.    (Fig.  12.)    In  the  former  the  sunlight  passes  over  the  entire  floor  during 


A 

B 

C 

D 

i] 

Alley 

,     Pen 

Pen 

Pen 

S   ;  S 

Shoii:Shed 

Pen 

Pen 

D             1 

Pen 

Pen 

[      P 

3n 

I 

s    i    s 

Shed  :  Shea 

£ 


«e/0-.-<d> 


^^4-^^ 


Closed 
Hoost 

Closed 
Roost 

ss 

hed 

SShed 

30 


the  day  from  west  to  east,  drying  and  purifying 
practically  the  whole  interior.  The  time  when 
sunshine  is  most  needed  is  when  the  sun  is  lowest 
— i.  e.,  from  September  21st  to  March  21st.  The 
FIG.  II  arrows  in  Fig.  12  represent  the  extreme  points 

which  the  sunshine  reaches  during  this  period 
with  the  top  of  a  four-foot  window  placed  four  feet,  six  feet  and  seven 
feet  high,  respectively.  With  the  highest  point  of  the  window  at  four  feet, 
the  direct  sun-rays  would  never  reach  farther  back  than  nine  feet;  at 
six  feet  it  would  shine  thirteen  and  one-half  feet  back,  and  at  seven  feet 
it  would  strike  the  back  side  of  the  house  one  foot  above  the  floor. 
Window  sash  with  small  glass  seriously  obstruct  the 
light.  Very  large  lights  break  too  easily  and  are 
more  expensive;  8  x  10  is  a  good-sized  glass  to 
be  used  in  twelve-light  sash,  making  it  about 
three  feet  nine  inches  high  by  two  feet  five 
inches  wide.    Use  two  of  these  for 


a  house  about  fifteen 
feet  square. 


Sun  from 
April  Zlst 
'/         to 

Sept.2l3t. 


San  ot 
■^      Dec.  Zlst. 


,..'■'  Single  sash 

--■''  are    usually  less 

expensive  than  double 

sash    of    the    same    size, 

and    the    cost    for    window 

'/'5- ^    '     frame    is    less.     Single    sash 

FIG-  12  may  swing  from  the  side  or 

top,  or  be  made  to  slide  to  one  side.  They  can  be  opened  and 
closed  quickly  and  completely,  and  are  against  the  wall,  where 
least    apt    to    be    broken.     With    double    sash    this    is   more    difficult. 


Practical   Poultry    Houses 


255 


Whitewashing  the  inside  of  a  house  makes  it  as  much  Hghter  as  would 
an  extra  window. 

14.  Extreme  temperature  may  he  modified  by  careful  ventilation. — 
It  is  as  important  that  houses  be  kept  cool  in  summer  as  it  is  that  they 
be  kept  warm  in  winter.  Therefore  remove  windows  in  hot  weather. 
Curtains  over  windows,  though  adding  to  trouble  and  expense,  can  be  used 
to  advantage  during  the  night  in  the  coldest  weather  and  during  the 
day  in  the  hottest  season.     Hens  must  be  kept  comfortably  warm.     This 


is  particularly  true  at  night,  when  the  body  is  less  active.  The  great 
difference  between  summer,  when  hens  naturally  lay  most  eggs,  and 
winter,  when  they  always  lay  the  least  eggs,  is  a  difference  in  temperature 
and  sunshine.  Therefore  we  must  build  our  poultry  houses  so  that  we  can, 
as  far  as  possible  consistently  with  cost,  overcome  this  condition. 

15.  A  low  house  is  warmed  more  easily  than  a  high  one. — Solid  walls 
radiate  heat  rapidly.  The  best  way  to  make  a  poultry  house  warm  is 
to  build  it  as  low  as  possible  without  danger  of  bumping  heads.  There 
will  then  be  ample  air  space  for  as  many  fowls  as  the  floor  space  will 
accommodate.  Too  much  air  space  makes  a  house  cold;  it  cannot  be 
warmed  up  by  the  heat  given  off  by  the  fowls. 


256  The    Poultry    Book 

With  the  house  as  seen  in  Figure  13,  15x15x6  feet,  there  would  be 
1,350  cubic  feet  of  air  space,  which,  with  forty  hens  weighing  five  pounds 
each,  would  allow  9/^  cubic  feet  to  each  pound  live  weight.  This  is 
eight  times  greater  than  is  recommended  for  each  pound  live  weight  for 
other  animals.  The  gable  roof  alone  has  562  cubic  feet  air  space,  or  2^ 
cubic  feet  air  space  to  each  pound  live  weight. 

16.  The  walls  should  furnish  insulation. — Matched  lumber  is  cheaper 
in  the  end  than  unmatched  with  battened  sides.  Planed  lumber  will  pay 
for  extra  cost  in  the  saving  of  paint  and  brushes.  For  durability,  painting 
buildings  may  not  pay,  but  for  appearance's  sake  it  is  desirable.  Line 
with  tough  building  paper,  always  making  the  laps  tight.  Make  the  walls 
double,  with  the  space  stuffed  with  straw,  rather  than  have  a  so-called 
dead  air  space  or  the  same  material  built  solid  together.  (See  Fig.  11.) 
With  the  solid  wall  heat  passes  through  rapidly.  The  same  is  true  of  a  dead 
air  space,  where  the  air  becomes  as  cold  as  the  outside  boarding,  and  in 
turn,  by  direct  contact,  cools  off  the  inside  boarding.  This  occurs  less 
quickly  when  the  space  is  stuffed  witli  non-conducting  material.  Stuffed 
walls  will  not  be  necessary  over  the  entire  house  except  in  the  very  coldest 
sections,  or  the  coldest  sides  in  the  milder  sections,  and  not  at  all  farther 
south.  It  costs  about  the  same  to  build  a  double-battened  wall  with 
unmatched  boards  solid  together,  with  paper  between,  as  it  does  to  make 
two  single  walls  of  matched  boards  with  one  lining  of  paper  and  the  space 
stuffed  with  straw.  With  vertical  boarding  every  board  serves  as  studding 
and   saves  expense. 

17.  Dampness  is  fatal  in  hen  houses;  drain  to  promote  dryness. — 
Better  by  far  to  have  a  cold,  dry  house  than  a  warm,  damp  house.  The 
warmer  the  air  the  more  moisture  it  will  hold.  W^hen  this  moist  air  comes 
in  contact  with  a  cold  surface,  condensation  takes  place,  which  is  often 
converted  into  hoar-frost.  The  remedy,  therefore,  is  to  remove  the  moisture 
supply  as  far  as  possible  by  first  cutting  off'  the  water  from  below  which 
comes  up  from  the  soil.  The  water  table  is  the  same  under  a  hen  house 
as  it  is  outdoors.  Dirt  floors  are  therefore  damp.  Stone-filling  covered 
with  soil  is  hard  to  clean,  and  only  partially  keeps  out  dampness,  unless 
raised  considerably  above  the  natural  ground-level,  as  shown  in  Figure  5. 
Board  floors  are  short-lived  if  the  air  is  not  allowed  to  circulate  under 
the  house.  If  the  foundation  walls  are  not  tight  the  floors  are  cold.  In 
any  case,  they  harbor  rats.     A  good  cement  floor  is  nearly  as  cheap  as  a  good 


Practical   Poultry    Houses  257 

matched  board  floor,  counting  lumber,  sleepers,  nails,  time,  etc.  When 
once  properly  made  it  is  good  for  all  time.  It  is  practically  rat  proof, 
easily  cleaned  and  perfectly  dry,  cutting  off  absolutely  all  the  water  from 
below.  An  objection  to  cement  floors  is  that  rats  may  burrow  under 
^  them  and  so  undermine  them  that  the  floors  break  through  when  stepped 
on  by  a  man.  We  have  seen  cement  floors  so  badly  broken  they  had  to 
be  dug  up  with  a  pick  and  relaid.  If  covered  with  a  little  soil,  or  straw, 
or  both,  as  all  kinds  of  floors  should  be,  it  will  be  a  warm  floor.  Make 
cement  floors  by  filling  in  with  small  stones  or  coarse  gravel,  if  possible, 
for  drainage.  Then  work  in  and  smooth  off  about  from  one  to  two 
inches  of  mortar,  made  by  mixing  thoroughly,  while  dry,  one  part  good 
cement  to  three  parts  sharp  sand,  then  wetting  and  thoroughly  mixing 
again  and  again  and  again.  Other  things  that  can  be  done  to  keep 
dampness  out  of  the  air  is  to  use  absorbents,  like  dry  dust  or  land-plaster 
(ground  gypsum),  or  South  Carolina  rock  on  the  droppings  (which  should 
be  frequently  removed),  and  by  keeping  plenty  of  dry  straw  or  buckwheat 
hulls  on  the  floor  or  for  litter  overhead. 

18.  When  air  is  warmed  it  expands  and  rises.  Cooling  has  the  opposite 
effect. — Damp  air  may  be  removed  by  ventilators,  which  will  necessarily 
make  the  house  a  little  cooler.  Warm  air  rises.  Therefore  the  best 
ventilator  is  one  that  has  an  out-take  near  the  floor,  with  a  tight  galvanized 
iron  shaft  leading  up  through  the  warm  air  of  the  house  to  the  roof  and  out 
at  the  peak.  The  metal,  being  more  quickly  affected  by  heat,  will  cause 
currents  of  air  in  the  shaft  to  rise  more  quickly.  (Fig.  13.)  The  intake 
air  should  be  received  from  the  bottom  on  the  outside  and  conducted  to 
the  ceiling  before  being  allowed  to  enter  the  room.  This  avoids  direct 
drafts  and  causes  a  circulation  necessary  to  the  removal  of  moisture. 
The  less  the  difference  between  the  inside  and  outside  temperatures  and  the 
quieter  the  air  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  ventilate.  The  tighter  and  warmer 
buildings  are  made  the  easier  they  are  to  ventilate.  The  larger  the  amount 
of  air  space  the  less  need  there  will  be  for  ventilators,  provided  there  is 
a  change  of  air  through  windows  or  doors  during  the  day.  (See  King,  on 
"Ventilation.")  Stuffing  the  sides  and  roof  of  the  house  with  straw  to 
prevent  condensation  of  moisture  will  help  to  keep  the  moisture  in  the 
air  so  that  it  can  be  removed  by  ventilation.  Pure  air  is  as  necessary 
to  good  health  and  good  egg-production  as  are  pure  food  and  pure  water. 
It  will  require  a  perfect  system  of  ventilation  and  considerable  personal 


258 


The   Poultry   Book 


attention  to  keep  the  air  in  a  poultry  house  as  pure  as  it  would  be  outdoors ; 
it  will,  therefore,  often  be  found  advisable  to  adopt  the  scratching-shed 


"t^>;-. 


6-8y 


plan  of  house,  which  allows  fowls  some  discretion  in  choosing  an  open- 
air  temperature. 

19.  Exercise  is  necessary  to  insure  health;  scratching- pens  provide 
for  this. — Hens  do  not  like  confinement.  The  fact  that  hens  can  go  in 
and  out  freely  from  house  to  shed  seems  to  be  a  deceptive  form  of  liberty 
which  they  crave,  and  which  is  not  provided  in  a  single  close  compartment 
house.  The  fact  of  having  been  in  the  cooler  air  during  the  daytime 
seems  to  make  the  fowls  less  affected  by  the  cold  of  night.  In  practice 
they  are  generally  found  to  be  more  healthy  and  to  lay  more  eggs  in  a  year 
when  proper  scratching-sheds  are  provided.  The  relative  size  of  the  shed 
and  closed  compartment  will  depend  upon  the  location.  The  farther 
south,  the  larger  the  scratching-shed  and  the  smaller  the  closed  pen,  even 
to  the  extent  of  having  all  open  sheds  with  cloth  fronts  and  with  hooded 
roosts.  Such  houses  are  far  warmer  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
farther  north  one  goes,  the  smaller  the  scratching-shed  and  the  larger  the 
closed  compartment  should  be,  until  in  very  cold  sections  the  open  shed 
might  be  entirely  undesirable.  Ordinarily,  they  should  be  about  equally 
divided. 

There  are  several  ways  to  provide  scratching-sheds,  each  one  possessing 
some  advantage  over  the  others.  Figure  1 1  shows  three  styles.  Plan  C  has 
the  advantage  of  a  scratching-shed  as  deep  as  the  house,  which  is  thus 
better  sheltered  from  the  wind.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  having  more 
doors  to  open  and  close  in  passing  through  a  long  house.  Plan  D  does 
away  with  two  doors,  thus  saving  time,  and  is  no  more  expensive  to  build, 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


259 


but  is  more  exposed  to  the  wind,  and  will  make  a  somewhat  dark  comer 
unless  a  window  is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  scratching-shed.  Plan  E  is 
all  scratching-shed  except  a  small,  warm  roosting-room.  This  would  be 
a  little  cheaper  to  build,  but  would  not  be  adapted  to  the  coldest  sections. 
The  fronts  of  the  open  sheds  should  generally  be  provided  with  heavy 
cotton  cloth  doors  to  keep  out  sleet  and  snow  during  heavy  storms.  They 
may  be  hung  at  the  top  and  raised  by  a  pulley,  or  sliding  doors  with  cloth 
windows  can  be  used.  Hens  are  easily  frightened.  Anything  that  causes 
uncertainty  or  suggests  danger  retards  egg-production.  Therefore  every 
house  should  provide  a  retreat.  This  is  done  by  placing  the  opening 
through  which  the  fowls  pass  to  and  from  the  shed  and  the  house  at  the 
rear  side  instead  of  the  front  side  of  the  partition  (Fig.  ii,  C).  When  any 
one  approaches  the  shed  the  hens  retreat,  without  alarm,  to  the  house,  or 
to  the  shed  if  the  alarm  were  to  come  from  the  other  direction.  Placing 
the  opening  at  the  rear  side  also  prevents  the  wind  from  blowing  into  the 
house.  It  should  be  raised  eight  inches  above  the  floor  to  prevent  the 
litter  from  being  scratched  out. 

20.  A  dust-bath  is  as  essen- 
tial to  a  hen's  health  and  happiness 
as  a  water-bath  to  a  human  being's. 
— By  it  they  scour  off  the  scurf 
and  scales  from  the  skin  and  rid 
themselves  of  vermin.  The  finer, 
lighter,  drier  dust  is  the  better, 
because  the  dust  must  be  light 
and  fine  to  get  into  the  breathing-  ^ 
pores  of  the  lice  to  kill  them. 
Sandy  loam  is  often  better  than 
sand  or  some  kinds  of  road  dust, 
which  are  cold  and  heavy;  wood 
ashes  and  coal  ashes  lighten  it  up. 
The  best  place  for  the  dust-bath 
is  in  the  open  air  of  the  scratching- 
shed.      Here    the    dust    quickly 

settles,  and  the  hens  that  are  not  dusting  are  not  compelled  to 
breathe  it.  Fowls  are  apt  to  stand  upon  the  edge  of  a  dust-box 
and  befoul  it.     The  interior  arrangement    of    a    poultry    house    should 


FIG.    15 


26o 


The   Poultry   Book 


not    occupy    the    floor    space ;    the    hens    need   it   all — and    thus,    also, 
the  floors  are  more  easily  cleaned. 

2  1.  Cleanliness  is  important;  movable  fixtures  facilitate  in  cleaning 
the  house.— For  the  most  part,  interior  fixtures  should  be  portable  to  facili- 
tate fighting  mites  (Figs.  14  and  15).  Generally  they  should  not  be  allowed 
to  touch  the  sides  of  the  house.  If  they  do,  the  wall  must  be  kept  tight 
and  vermin-proof.  Roosts  should  be  on  the  same  level  to  prevent  fowls 
from  fighting  to  get  to  the  highest  place.  They  should  be  placed  in  the 
warmest  spot,  out  of  the  reach  of  drafts,  and  as  high  as  possible  without 


injury  to  the  fowls  in 
close  that  fowls  can  snuggle 
warm,  and  enough  space 
can  separate  during  warm 
twelve  inches  for  each  fowl, 
desired  seems  to  be  a  piece 
the  narrow  edge  rounded . 
a  platform  to  catch  the 
permit     cleaning     without 

22.  Hens  are 
darkened  nests. — 
their  nests,  there- 
be    partly    dark ;      '— 

to  eat  eggs  in  dark 
place  for  the  nests 


NyVaterPo 


PItttfo 


Floor 

FIG.     16 


descending.  They  should  be  so 
together  and  keep  each  other 
should  be  provided  so  that  they 
weather.  Allow  from  six  to 
The  form  of  perch  most  to  be 
about  two  by  three  inches,  with 
Under  the  perches  should  be 
droppings — far  enough  below  to 
removing  perches. 

secretive  and  prefer 
They  like  to  hide 
fore  these  should 
they  are  less  apt 
nests.  A  good 
is  under  the  drop- 


Wooden  Cover 


pings  board.  They  should  be  so  placed  that  the  eggs  can  be  gathered  without 
stooping.  Hens  hke  to  fly  up  to  lay.  Nest  boxes  should  generally  be  about 
one  foot  square  and  from  six  to  eight  inches  deep,  so  that  the  nest  material 
will  prevent  the  eggs  from  breaking,  and  the  hens  cannot  roll  eggs  from 
one  nest  to  another.  The  partitions  between  nests  should  permit  hens  to 
go  from  one  nest  to  another,  otherwise  they  will  fight  and  break  eggs. 
Fine  hay  is  the  best  nest  material ;  sawdust  stains  eggs ;  excelsior  wads  up 
and  sticks  to  hens'  toes;  straw  is  too  coarse.  Provide  nest  eggs;  the 
hen  then  feels  a  sense  of  security.  That  is  why  different  hens  like  to  lay 
in  the  same  nest.  Figures  14  and  15  are  suggestions  for  roosting  and 
nesting  arrangements  which  we  have  been  using  with  great  satisfaction; 
they  can  be  modified  to  suit  conditions. 

Water  basins  should  be  large  enough  so  that  when  filled  the  water 


Practical    Poultry   Houses 


261 


will  last  for  twenty-four  hours ;  then  we  shall  know  that  the  hen  will  never 

suffer  from  lack  of  water.      They  should  be  easily  cleaned,  and  should 

be    made  of  such  material  that  they  will 

not  break  if  dropped  or  frozen.     The  best 

water-dish  is  a  galvanized  iron  refrigerator 

pan,    with     corrugated    bottom    and    with 

top    larger    than    bottom.     It    should    be 

placed    a    little    above   the   floor,   with    a 

cover     to     prevent     its     becoming    dirty 

(Fig.  16). 

A  self-feed  grit-box  should  be  placed 
where  the  hens  can  have  constant  access 
to  it  and  cannot  roost  upon  it  (Fig.  17). 
Every  pen  should  be  provided  with  a 
hanging  coop,  with  slat  sides  and  bottom, 
in  which  to  place  broody  hens  or  extra 
males  (Fig.  18).  ^ 

.  FIG      17 

In  the  foregoing  pages  the  attempt 
has  been  made  to  take  up  the  parts  of  a  poultry  plant  in  detail, 
to  discuss  the  principles  involved,  and  to  give  the  reasons  why, 
leaving  to  each  one  who  reads  it  the  problem  of  applying  the  principles 
by  locating  and  building  according  to  his  own  conditions.  There  is  no 
one  best  poultry  house  for  all,  but  there  is  a  best  poultry  house  for  each 
one.  We  will  give  in  the  following  pages  illustrations  and  descriptions  of 
practical  poultry  houses  of  several  different  designs. 


FIG.     18 


262 


The    Poultry    Book 


FIG.     I  IMPLEMENT    HOUSE    TRANS- 

FORMED   INTO    POULTRY    HOUSE 


Poultry  House  Suggestions 

Poultry  houses  are  discussed  in  "Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  141,"  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  follows:  "It  is  very  desirable  that 
poultry  should  be  provided  with  a  house  somewhat  separated  from  the 

other  farm  buildings,  but  near  enough  to 
the  barnyard  so  that  they  can  spend  a 
part  of  their  time  in  scratching  for  and 
gathering  up  the  many  seeds  and  grains 
which  otherwise  would  not  be  utilized.  On 
farms  where  no  poultry  house  is  provided 
the  hens  are  compelled  to  seek  roosting 
places  wherever  they  can  find  them  — 
sometimes  in  fruit  trees,  sometimes  on  feed 
racks,  sometimes  on  the  farm  machinery, 
and  sometimes  even  on  the  wagons  and  carriages. 

"  Poultry  houses  need  not  be  elaborate  in  their  fittings  nor  expensive 
in  construction.  There  are  certain  conditions,  however,  which  should 
be  insisted  upon  in  all  cases.  In  the  first  place,  the  house  should  be 
located  upon  soil  which  is  well  drained  and  dry.  A  gravelly  knoll  is  best, 
but,  failing  this,  the  site  should  be  raised  by  the  use  of  the  plow  and  scraper 
until  there  is  a  gentle  slope  in  all  directions  sufficient  to  prevent  any  stand- 
ing water  even  at  the  wettest  times.  A  few  inches  of  sand  or  gravel  on  the 
surface  will  be  very  useful  in  preventing  the  formation  of  mud.  If  the 
house  is  sheltered  from  the  north  and  northwest  winds  by  a  group  of  ever- 
greens, this  will  be  a  decided 
advantage  in  the  colder  parts  of 
the  country. 

"  Sometimes  there  is  already 
a  small  building  on  the  farm 
which  has  been  used  for  imple- 
ments or  animals  and  which  is 
no  longer  required  for  these 
purposes.     Such  a  building  may 

be  easily  fitted  for  poultry  by  cutting  a  small  door  in  one  side  and  placing 
roosts  and  nests  in  the  interior.   (Figs,  i  and  2.) 

"In  case  there  is  no  building  suitable  for  remodeling  into  a  poultry 


IMPLEMENT    HOUSE    TRANSFORMED 
POULTRY    HOUSES 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


263 


house,  an  inexpensive  lean-to  may  be  built  (Fig.  3),  or  a  new  building 
constructed.  A  house  for  this  purpose  should  be  planned  with  a  view  to 
simpHcity,  economy  and  convenience  while  supplying  the  conditions 
proper  for  successful  poultry  keeping. 

"One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  poultry  house 
is  shown  in  Figure  4,  and  groimd  plan  of  the 
same  in  Figure  5.  A  scratching-shed  may  be 
attached  to  the  side  of  this  house,  as  in  Figures 
6  and  7,  which,  if  desired,  may  be  inclosed  in 
front  with  poultry  wire,  so  as  to  keep  the  birds 
confined. 

The  details   of  construction   of  roosts  are 

seen  in  Figure  8.     The  important  points  are  a 

nearly  fiat  or  sHghtly  rounded  surface  on  the 

tipper  side  and  as  few  cracks  and  crevices  as  possible  in  which  vermin 

may  hide.     The  roosts  may  be  made  of  two-  by  three-inch  scantling,  and 

should  be  so  put  in  that   they   can  easily  be  removed  at  any  time  for 


FIG.  3. 


A  LEAN-TO   POULTRY 
HOUSE 


cleaning  and 
A  platform  is 
under  the 
catch  the 
and  the  nests 
under  this 
"The 


GROUND    PLfKN. 


'IG.    4.        SIMPLE    FORM    OF 
POULTRY    HOUSE 


FIG.     5.        GROUND 
PLAN     FOR    FIG.    4 


disinfection, 
often  placed 
roosts  to 
droppings, 
are  placed 
platform, 
simplest  form 

of  nest  is  a  box  placed  upon  the  floor  of  the  poultry  house.  With  heavy 
fowls,  which  are  apt  to  break  their  eggs  in  fighting  away  other  hens 
that  try  to  enter  their  nests  when  they  are  laying  and  thus  acquire  the 
habit  of  egg-eating,  a 
more  concealed  or  dark 
nest  may  be  necessary. 
"One  of  the  most 
troublesome  parts  of 
a  poultry  house  to 
make  satisfactory  is 
the  floor.  Many  use  earth  floors,  but  these  are  often  damp,  especially 
in  cool  weather,  and  then  induce  rheumatism,  colds,  roup,  digestive 
disorders  and  various  other  diseases.     Some  have  put  in  cement  floors, 


FIG.    6.        POULTRY    HOUSE    WITH 
SCRATCHING    SHED 


7.       GROUND   PLAN 
FOR    FIG.    6 


264 


The    Poultry    Book 


but  have  found  these  cold  and  also  more  or  less  damp.  Probably 
a  good  cement  floor,  laid  on  broken  stone  and  covered  with  a  few  inches 
of  earth,  would  be  satisfactory,  if  not  too  expensive.     A  board  floor,  six 

or    eight    inches    above  the 


l-HI    ll-HI    II 


FIG.  8.     CONSTRUCTION 
OF  ROOSTS 


FIG.    9.       SECTIONAL   VIEW 
OF    ROOST,    PLATFORM 

AND    NESTS 


earth,  with  good  ventilation 
under  it,  is  dry  but  too 
cold,  except  in  the  South. 
A  double  flooring,  laid 
tightly  with  building  paper 
between,   or   a    good    single 

flooring  covered  with   a  few  inches  of  dry  earth,   is  probably  the  best. 

In  all  cases  of  board  floors  there  should  be  sufficient  space  beneath  for 

ventilation  and  to  guard  against  the  lodgment  of  rats. 

"A  good  style  of  poultry  house,  with   scratching-room  under  it,  is 

shown  in  Figure  10.     In  case  more  than  one  flock  is  to  be  kept,  the  plan 

may  be  multiplied  to  any  extent  by  adding  to  the   ends.       With  such 

houses  there  may  be  fenced  runs  at  the  back  or  front,  or  on  both  sides,  so 

that   the  birds   may  be    confined. 
' '  The   amount  of  space  to  be 

allowed    for    each    bird    depends 

upon  the  size  of  the  birds,  whether 

a  shed  is  attached  to  the  house  or 

whether    the    fowls    have    a    free 

run  of  the  open  fields.     For  birds 

in    confinement    there    should    be 

from  six  to  fifteen  square  feet  for 

each  adult  bird  in  case  there  is  no 

shed  attached  to  the  house;  and 

with   a    shed   this    space  may  be 

reduced  about  one-half.    The  yards 

should  be  large  enough  to   allow 

exercise   in   the  open  air    and  to 

furnish  more  grass  than  the  birds 

will  eat.     This  will  vary  from    60 

to    150    square    feet    per   adult   bird.     The    open  shed  facing  the  south, 

where   the    birds    can    be    induced    to    hunt    for    their    food    and    take 

exercise  in  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  where  they  can  enjoy  the  pleasure 


[O.       SCRATCHING-ROOM    UNDER 
POULTRY    HOUSE 


Practical   Poultry    Houses 


265 


of  scratching  and  dusting  themselves  in  the  sunshine,  even  during  the  winter 
months,  is  of  great  assistance  in  maintaining  the  health  and  productiveness, 
of  the  flock.  The  roosting  space  allowed  should  be  from  six  to  eight  inches 
for  the  smaller  breeds,  from  eight  to  ten  inches  for  the  medium  breeds, 
and  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  for  the  larger  breeds. 

"Poultry  houses  should  be  well  ventilated,  but  so  arranged  that 
drafts  of  air  will  not  strike  the  birds.  Windows  and  doors  should  be 
provided  in  such  locations  that  the  sun  may  shine  into  the  building  a 
considerable  part  of  the  day.  Sunshine  is  required  both  to  keep  the  houses 
dry  and  to  destroy  various  forms  of  infection." 


COLONY    HOUSES    AT   THE     WEST   VIRGINIA    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Experiment  Station  Colony  Houses 

The  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  colony  houses  are  ten  feet' 
wide  and  twenty  feet  long,  and  are  arranged  in  a  row  facing  southward  so 
as  to  give  the  fowls  as  much  sunlight  as  possible  during  the  wmter.  In 
front  of  each  house  is  a  door  and  two  windows.  The  doors  are  furnished 
with  spring  locks,  thus  securely  fastening  the  houses  at  all  times.  The 
windows  are  co\'ered  with  wire  netting  and  are  kept  open  during  the  hot 
weather.  These  and  a  drop  door  on  the  east  end  of  each  house,  also 
covered  with  wire  netting,  are  the  only  means  of  ventilation.  At  the 
approach  of  very  cold  weather  the  windows  and  doors  are  closed  and 
remain  so  until  spring. 

There  are  two  runs  for  each  house,  and  they  are  entered  by  the  fowls 
through  two  drop  doors  in  the  rear  of  the  houses.  An  advantage  of 
having  double  runs  is  that  the  fowls  are  thus  constantly  supplied  during 


266 


The  Poultry  Book 


SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSE    AT    THE    MASSACHUSETTS    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


the  summer  with  an  abundance  of  green  food,  the  runs  being  plowed  three 
or  four  times,  and  alternately  planted  to  rape  or  some  other  suitable  crop. 
During  the  planting,  and  while  the  crop  is  young,  the  adjacent  run  is  opened 
and  the  fowls  have  free  access  to  it,  while  the  newly  planted  yard  is  closed 
by  means  of  a  little  drop  door.  Each  run  is  furnished  with  a  wire  gate 
opening  out  upon  a  boardwalk  which  extends  in  front  of  the  houses  and  runs. 

The  houses  rest  upon  brick  founda- 
tions about  two  feet  in  height,  a  foot 
of  which  is  aboveground.  The  surface 
of  the  ground  within  this  wall  is  filled 
up  to  the  sills  with  sand,  and  upon  this 
is  scattered  litter  in  which  the  fowls 
scratch  during  the  winter  for  grain 
and  grit. 

A  tile  drain  extending  along  the  rear 
of  the  houses  keeps  the  dirt  floors  of  the 
houses  dry  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 
The  houses  are  divided  into  two  rooms,  a  roosting  room,  in  which 
the  roosts  and  nest  boxes  are  situated,  and  a  scratching  pen.     The  perches 


.^ j J 

IS  FT i 


GROUND    PLAN    OF     SCRATCHING-SHED 
HOUSES,    MASSACHUSETTS    EXPERI- 
MENT   STATION 


Practical   Poultry    Houses 


267 


HOUSES    AND    YARDS,    MASSACHUSETTS    EXPERIMENT 
STATION 


are  merely  frames  made  from  two-inch  strips,  suspended  from  the  rafters 
by  wires.  Under  the  perches  are  the  platforms  for  the  droppings,  which 
are  also  suspended  from 
the  rafters.  Underneath 
these  platforms  are  the 
nests.  The  accompanying 
cut  shows  the  general  ar- 
rangement and  appearance 
of  the  houses. 

We  show  an  illustration 
of  the  colony  poultry  house 
with  scratching-shed  which 
is  used  at  the  Hatch  Experi- 
ment Station,  Amherst, 

Massachusetts.  These  houses  are  12  x  18  feet,  having  a  scratching-shed 
8x12  feet  and  a  roost-  and  nesting-room  10  x  12  feet.  There  are  two  full- 
sized  windows  made  to  open  up  and  down  in  the  roosting  department,  while 
the  scratching-shed  is  provided  with  double  doors  which  open  nearly  its 
entire  front.  These  houses  are  very  substantially  built,  are  nine  feet  high 
in  front  and  six  feet  high  in  the  rear.  The  walls  and  roof  are  shingled. 
The  doors  to  the  scratching-shed  each  contain  a  twelve-light  window 
in  the  upper  half.  These  doors  are  made  to  open  inward,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.     The  houses  have  earth  floors,  which  are  perfectly  dry,  as 

the  buildings  are  located 
on  w^ell-drained  land.  Each 
house  is  provided  with  a 
yard,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. 

The  colony  houses  of 
the  Connecticut  Experiment 
Station  are  cheaply  built 
scratching-shed  houses,  six- 
teen feet  long  and  five  feet 
nine  inches  wide,  six  feet 
high  in  front  and  four  feet 
high  in  the  rear,  a  little  less  than  one-half  of  which  is  made  as  a  roosting- 
room  and  the  balance  a  curtained-front  shed.     The  front  of  the  roosting- 


SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSES    AT   THE    CONNECTICUT 
EXPERIMENT    STATION 


268  The    Poultry    Book 

room  has  a  two-foot-wide  door  and  one  double-sash  window.  The 
curtain  of  the  scratching-shed  is  stretched  upon  a  Hght  frame,  which  is 
hinged  at  the  top,  and  may  be  raised  or  lowered  by  a  cord  which  passes 
through  the  outside  front  of  the  shed.  The  scratching-shed  has  an  earth 
floor  and  a  board  floor  is  provided  for  the  roosting-room.  Each  of  these 
colony  houses  has  a  yard  sufficiently  large  so  that  there  is  good  grass  in 
them  for  the  fowls  all  summer  long. 

Practical  Colony  Houses 

A  colony  house  suitable  for  growing  stock,  a  breeding-pen  or  a  brooder 
house  was  described  by  Arthur  G.  Duston,  a  practical  poultryman  of 
Massachusetts,  in  the  Reliable  Poultry  Journal  as  follows:  "I  have  been 
in  the  poultry  business  for  many  years,  and  have  seen  and  tried  many 
houses,  but  I  have  never  seen  the  equal  of  the  house  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration.  This  house  is  ten  feet  in  length  and  five  feet  in  width. 
The  height  in  front  is  five  feet  three  and  a  half  inches  and  in  the  back  is 
four  feet  two  inches.  A  large  double  window  furnishes  light.  It  is  placed 
low^  in  the  house,  as  you  will  see,  being  but  one  foot  from  the  board  floor. 
When  the  door  is  open  the  sun  shines  in  as  though  it  were  an  open  shed. 
The  door  is  21-2x41-2  feet  and  is  made  in  two  sections.  The  inner 
section  is  hinged  to  the  outer,  thus  making  a  door  within  a  door.  The 
opening  in  the  door  proper  is  covered  with  one-inch-mesh  wire  netting. 
This  permits  of  the  opening  of  the  panel  door.  Throughout  the  winter, 
except  in  stormy  weather,  this  outside  door  is  left  open  all  day.  When 
closed  the  building  is  tight  and  waiTn.  The  first  year  there  is  no  need  of 
papering  the  sides,  but  after  that  the  openings  from  shrinkage  make 
drafts,  which,  of  course,  the  birds  cannot  stand.  The  roof  is  covered 
with  any  good  roofing  fabric. 

"This  convenient  colony  house  is  durably  built  of  2  x  3  studding 
and  seven-eighths-inch  matched  stock.  About  68  feet  of  studding  and 
230  feet  of  boards  are  required.  The  house  is  built  on  two  pieces  of  2x4- 
inch  stufl^,  rounded  at  the  ends.  I  can  take  my  work  horse  and  haul  one 
of  these  houses  all  over  the  farm.  I  can  hang  three-  or  four-foot  wire 
netting  on  stakes  driven  in  the  ground  and  in  a  few  minutes  have  a  house 
and  yard  ready  for  occupancy.  I  have  kept  breeding-pens  in  buildings  of 
this  type  with  splendid  success  and  have  housed  sale  cockerels  in  them 
until  late  in  spring.     What  better  can  be  found  than  a  house  of  this  size  for 


fS. 


Uo^lxaiui^-^  'tUiiO^ 


AUSTRALIAN-BRED   MALAY    COCKEREL 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


269 


service  in  the  spring,  with  either  chicks  just  hatched  or  with  growing  stock  ? 
With  a  bran  sack  I  divide  the  house  into  two  pens  and  into  each  put  hens 
with  chickens.  They  do  splendidly;  if  the  mothers  are  shut  in  small 
coops  formed  by  placing  a  board  across  each  back  comer,  the  chicks  have 
the  range  of  the  whole  floor. 

"A  brooder  may  be  put  into  this  house  in  early  spring  when  the  weather 
IS  too  changeable  to  allow  the  use  of  any  brooder  out-of-doors.  When  a 
brooder  is  in  a  house  like  this  your  chickens  have  practically  outdoor 


MR.    DUSTON's    colony   HOUSE 


exercise  when  they  could  hardly  run  out  on  the  ground.  Last  spring  I 
placed  a  brooder  in  this  house  and  cut  a  hole  in  the  end  of  the  house  for  a 
lamp.  This  brooder  gave  entire  satisfaction.  The  large  window,  and  the 
door  always  open,  furnished  an  abundance  of  sunlight  and  air,  which  had 
much  to  do  with  the  success  of  the  brooder. 

"The  general  usefulness  of  the  house  is  what  has  appealed  to 
me  most.  Last  season  I  had  several  of  these  houses  for  summer 
quarters  for  yearling  hens  distributed  through  the  fields.  The  hens 
so  housed  have  molted  better  than  any  I  have  ever  had  before. 
The  doors  are  not  shut  at  all  at  night,  and  the  hens  have  been  free 
from  every  malady.  I  have  twenty  of  these  houses  and  intend  to 
build  more.     If  one  can  do  the  work  oneself,  one  can  build  such  a  house 


270  The    Poultry    Book 

for  $9.61      This  estimate  does  not  include  the  cost  of  paper  for  covering 
roof  and  sides. 

"  There  are  many  uses  for  such  a  house  on  any  poultry  farm.  It  cannot 
be  bettered  as  a  summer  shelter  for  growing  stock.  If  one  has  but  little 
room  he  can  haul  this  house  eack  week  to  a  fresh  plot  of  grass,  as  he  would 
do  with  a  small  brooder,  thus  allowing  the  grass  on  the  old  place  to  grow 
again.  The  brooder,  however,  cannot  be  compared  with  this  colony 
house  when  the  chickens  have  reached  some  size." 

A    CURTAINED-FRONT    POULTRY    HoUSE 

At  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  fresh  air  was  the  main  consideration 
in  their  new  poultry  house.  Its  chief  pecuharity  was  a  curtained-front 
roosting-room  and  a  curtained  front  to  the  house  proper.  The  developing 
of  a  new  idea  in  poultry-house  construction,  and  the  test  proving  it  a  most 
practical  one,  certainly  justifies  a  feeling  of  satisfaction,  and  this  success 
has  come  to  Professor  Gowell  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station.  Although 
the  experiment  was  tried  with  great  misgiving,  the  success  was  beyond 
question,  and  when  the  fifty  birds  not  only  continued  in  high  health  but 
contributed  a  steady  supply  of  eggs  throughout  the  winter,  it  would  seemi 
as  though  the  conditions  were  substantially  right.  The  chief  point  of  this 
poultry  house  is  that  only  two  cloth  curtains  are  between  the  birds  and  all 
outdoors  at  night,  and  it's  cold  weather  up  in  ]\Iaine,  the  mercury  often- 
times going  away  below  zero.  A  remarkable  feature  of  this  house  is  that 
the  birds  were  tight-shut  within  the  small  roosting-pen  on  decidedly  cold 
nights,  with  only  about  four  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  bird. 

A  point  that  we  want  to  keep  in  mind  is  that  the  Maine  Experiment 
Station  is  in  a  very  cold  country,  being  located  some  ten  or  a  dozen  miles 
north  of  Bangor  and  almost  up  to  latitude  45.  When  we  see  that  Ottaw^a, 
Ontario,  is  only  45  1-2  north,  that  j\Iinneapolis,  Minnesota,  and  Portland, 
Oregon,  are  45  plus;  Chicago  42  minus;  Cleveland,  Ohio,  41  plus,  and 
Buffalo,  New  York,  43  minus,  we  realize  that  a  poultry  house  which  does 
good  work  at  the  ]\Iaine  Station  will  do  equally  good  work  anywhere  in 
the  northern  States  and  the  more  thickly  settled  portions  of  Canada. 

The  house  is  twenty-five  feet  long  by  ten  feet  wide,  and  as  the  roost 
platform  is  three  feet  above  the  floor  the  whole  of  the  250  square  feet  of 
floor  space  is  available  for  exercise  room :  five  square  feet  of  floor  space 
for  each  of  fifty  birds. 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


271 


A  decidedly  important  factor  in  this  curtained-front  house  is  that 
straw  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches  was  over  all  the  floor,  and  some 
kernels  of  grain  were  thrown  in  the  straw  overnight,  so  that  the  birds  went 


II  !l 


THE    CURTAINED-FRONT    HOUSE    AT    THE    MAINE    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


immediately  to  scratching  (exercising)  as  soon  as  they  came  off  the  roost 
in  the  morning.  It  would  be  unwise  to  open  the  curtain  of  the  roosting- 
pen  and  let  the  birds  out  into  the  very  cold  atmosphere  of  the  house 
without  their  having  an  inducement  to  work ;  the  air  within  the  close-shut 
roosting-pen  would  be  warm  (comparatively),  and  that  of  the  house  very 
cold,  with  only  a  muslin  curtain  between  the  inside  air  and  the  below- 
zero  air  outside.  The  air  inside  would  be  down  toward  zero  some  morn- 
ings, and  far  below  freezing  many  mornings,  and  yet  by  that  simple  pre- 
caution of  having  them  go  immediately  to  work  kicking  the  straw  about, 
the  warm,  snug  air  of  the  roosting-pen  and  the  sudden  change  to  the 
cold  air  of  the  scratching-room  induced  no  colds  nor  any  troubles  of  a 
similar  character.  We  would  build  such  a  house  with  a  shed  roof,  the 
front  seven  feet  high  and  the  back  five  and  one-half  feet  high.  In 
describing  this  house  Professor  Gowell  says : 

"The  roost  platform  is  three  feet  above  the  floor  and  is  three  feet 
two  inches  wide  (clear).  This  width  gives  sufficient  room  so  the  back 
wall  and  front  curtain  are  not  soiled  by  the  discharges  from  the  birds 
while  oh  the  roosts.  I  do  not  like  to  have  the  platform  nearer  the  floor 
than  three  feet.  If  the  space  is  three  feet  high  it  is  Hght  and  clear  and  is 
really  a  part  of  the  room ;  if  but  two  feet  high  it  is  only  a  hole  into  which 
the  hens  can  go,  to  be  sure — and  a  man  has  to  crawl  in  search  of  the  eggs 


272  The  Poultry  Book 

sometimes  laid  there.  It  is  dark,  and  you  have  to  make  excuses  ( ?)  to 
yourself  about  it  every  time  you  go  into  it.  Don't  make  it  less  than 
three  feet  for  me  !  The  roosting-room  is  three  feet  two  inches  wide  in  the 
clear  (from  wall  to  curtain),  and  averages  three  feet  high  from  the  plat- 
form below  the  roosts  to  the  roof  above.  The  house  is  clean,  light,  plain 
and  inexpensive,  and  with  so  much  open  front  it  gives  room  for  a  large 
number  of  birds  on  small  floor  space. 

"The  walls  and  roof  about  the  roosting-room  must  be  double,  must 
be  tight  and  well  packed,  and  the  curtain  must  fit  very  close  to  prevent 
currents  of  air.  Don't  put  in  any  ventilators  !  When  the  curtains  are 
first  shut  down,  on  the  first  cold  night,  they  are  not  allowed  open  another 
night  until  cold,  freezing  nights  are  over,  unless  we  have  a  long  winter 
thaw,  in  which  case  we  use  our  judgment  about  leaving  curtain  open." 

The  curtain  for  front  of  roosting-pen  is  3  x  i6i/^  feet,  and  there 
is  a  "broody"  coop  (in  which  to  imprison  broody  birds)  at  the  left 
end  four  feet  long.  It  is  essential  that  the  broody  birds  have  a 
similar  closed  roosting-room  as  those  not  imprisoned,  hence  the  curtain 
front  of  broody  pen  should  be  opened  and  closed,  same  as  the  other. 
For  convenience  make  the  front  of  roosting-pen  in  two  curtains  of  3  x  8  1-4 
feet,  setting  a  stud  in  center  of  front.  For  the  front  of  the  house  have 
two  curtains  each  four  feet  wide  by  eight  feet  long,  which  gives  4x16 
feet  of  curtains,  and  three  windows  as  shown. 

All  of  these  curtains  should  be  tacked  to  well-made  frames  of  i  x  3-inch, 
hinged  at  top  so  as  to  swing  up  to  the  roof  rafters,  where  hooks  and  screw- 
eyes  secure  them,  and  there  should  be  a  cross-brace  to  stiffen  the  frame. 
The  front  curtain,  which  is  exposed  to  the  weather,  should  be  of  oiled 
muslin  such  as  gardeners  use  for  covers  for  their  coldframes ;  the  curtains 
for  front  of  roosting-pen  and  broody  pen  are  of  a  good  quality  of  muslin. 
The  curtains  should  fit  tight  to  prevent  currents  of  air.  The  roost  platform 
is  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  inch  boards  put  together  so  as  to  break  joints, 
the  upper  thickness  being  an  inch  within  the  lower,  and  the  curtain  frame 
shutting  down  close  against  it.  The  door  to  house  should  be  in  the 
west  end,  sufficiently  far  front  to  clear  the  broody  pen  curtain;  as 
the  front  curtain  does  not  come  to  the  end  of  the  house,  the  door  will 
clear  that.  The  three  windows  are  of  twelve  lights  each,  8  x  10  glass, 
and  in  winter  for  very  cold  latitudes  have  an  outside  ("storm")  windo^\' 
on  each,  the  chief  advantage  of  it  being  to  prevent  the  windows  frosting 


Practical    Poultry    Houses  273 

over.  As  that  size  of  outside  windows  costs  but  about  $1.25  each,  they 
soon  pay  for  themselves. 

There  should  be  a  double  wall,  tightly  packed  with  straw  or  swale 
hay,  back  of  roosting-  and  broody  pen  and  up  the  roof  to  front  of  same ; 
in  other  words,  the  roosting-  and  broody  pens  are  double-walled  throughout. 
Covering  roof  and  walls  with  a  good  quality  of  prepared  roofing,  such  as 
Flintkote,  Rubberoid,  Neponset,  Swan's  Felt,  etc.,  the  outer  wall  would 
be  wind-  and  frost-proof.  To  make  inner  wall  about  roosting-pen  air-tight, 
put  tarred  sheathing  paper  upon  inside  of  studding  before  boarding  up. 
The  roost  platform  is  continued  to  the  east  end,  making  a  nest-box  plat- 
form four  feet  long.  The  nest  boxes  I  would  make  three  feet  long  by 
fifteen  inches  wide  and  high,  five  inches  at  the  back  closed  up  to  enclose  nest 
material ;  the  front  is  closed  by  a  door  which  is  secured  by  a  simple  button 
and  can  be  opened  for  collecting  the  eggs.  To  facilitate  the  fowls  reaching 
the  platform  an  inclined  stairway  could  be  put  in  leading  up  to  an  opening 
at  the  rear.     The  nest-box  flats  are  partitioned  into  four  apartments  each. 

The  house  used  at  the  Maine  Station  had  a  board  floor,  with  two  or 
three  inches  of  dry  earth  on  it.  I  would  prefer  an  earth  (fine  sand)  floor, 
and  to  get  absolute  dryness  would  build  houses  with  sills  eighteen  inches 
above  ground-level,  filling  up  inside  to  base  of  sills  and  sloping  up  the 
ground  outside  to  same  pomt.  The  slope  outside  would  turn  away  the  water 
and  insure  inside  ground  being  bone-dry,  for  absolute  dryness  is  essential 
to  the  best  health  of  the  flocks.  Many  poultry  houses  are  damp  and 
unhealthy  because  they  are  tight-shut,  and  the  moisture  condensed  from 
the  breath  of  the  birds  cannot  escape;  it  collects  on  the  ceiling  and  walls 
(in  the  shape  of  frost  if  the  weather  is  cold)  and  drips  upon  the  fowls 
and  scratching  material  below.  This  curtained-front  house  would  be 
wholly  free  from  that  trouble,  and  a  part  of  the  secret  of  the  excellent 
results  with  it  is  that  there  is  "ventilation"  every  day,  and  ventilation 
without  drafts.  Fresh  air  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  are  a 
necessity  if  we  would  have  good  health  and  egg-production,  and  those 
quaHties  are  combined  most  excellently  in  this  curtained-front  house. 

Successful  and  Practical  House 

Writing  of  the  "New  Idea"  laying-  and  breeding-house,  Doctor  C. 
Bricault,  of  Massachusetts,  says:  "We  are  firm  believers  in  fresh  air  for 
our  hens.     We  have  had  ample  opportunity  to  note  its  good  effects  upon 


274 


The    Poultry   Book 


-^'^■:. 


DR.    BRICAULT  S        NEW    IDEA       POULTRY   HOUSE 


the  health  of  the  stock  and  the  egg  yield.  The  open  scratching-shed 
gives  us  fresh  air  but  not  enough  comfort,  and  it  takes  up  too  much 
space.  It  was  in  thinking  about  these  things  that  we  planned  the  house 
illustrated  here. 

"  The  large  doors  in  the  south  front  were  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
With  correct  handling,  the  doors  allow  us  to  give  our  hens  all  the  fresh  air 
necessary,  and  still  we  are  able  to  close  them  at  night  during  the  extremely 
cold  weather  and  give  them  a  comfortable  place  to  roost  in.  During  mild 
weather  the  upper  part  of  the  door  is  left  open  at  night  and  a  cloth  curtain 
put  in  the  opening,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  illustration.  When  the  sun  is  well 
up  in  winter  the  door  is  open  and  the  whole  floor  is  flooded  with  sunshine. 
How  the  hens  appreciate  this  can  be  best  understood  by  noting  their 
contented  appearance  as  they  stretch  out  to  sun  themselves.  The  size  of 
each  pen  is  lo  x  12  feet,  which  will  easily  accommodate  fifteen  females 
and  one  male  for  breeding,  or  twenty-five  females  for  laying. 

"The  frame  is  2  x  4  for  sills,  plates  and  rafters  and  2x3  for  studding. 
It  is  five  feet  high  in  rear  and  seven  feet  in  front.  The  sills  are  laid  on 
cedar  posts  about  one  foot  from  ground-level.  We  take  a  six-foot  post, 
cut  it  in  two,  and  set  it  two  feet  into  the  ground.  It  is  boarded  up  with 
cheap  hemlock  boards,  first  by  imbedding  the  bottom  board  four  inches 
into  the  ground,  and  havmg  the  bottom  board  come  up  to  half  the  thick- 
ness of  sill.  Then  the  upper  boarding  begins  at  this  point  on  the  sill. 
This  makes  a  tight  joint  near  the  floor  and  prevents  cold  drafts  striking 
the  hens  and  producmg  colds.      The  house  is  filled  inside  to  level  of  sills 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


275 


with  gravelly  sand,  which  makes  a  dry  floor.  To  make  the  house  tight 
along  the  upper  part  of  the  back  wall,  the  rafters  are  cut  even  with  plates 
and  boarded  up  even  with  top  of  rafters. 

"The  boards  are  covered  with  a  cheap  building  paper,  then  with 
sheathing  quilt,  and  over  these  a  prepared  roofing.  The  roofing  paper 
is  held  in  place  with  tin  caps  and  nails.  In  laying  the  paper  we  begin 
at  the  back,  laying  it  up  and  down  and  lapping  it  well  on  the  roof  boards. 
This  makes  a  perfectly  tight  joint  just  where  the  roosts  are  placed.  The 
paper  is  then  laid  on  all  four  walls,  but  the  roof  paper  is  laid  lengthwise 
of  the  building.  After  the  paper  is  laid  on  the  back  wall,  we  lay  a  course 
of  shingles  projecting  from  the  house  about  five  inches  and  another  on 
top  of  this  one.  This  we  do  in  order  to  allow  the  roof  water  to  be  carried 
away  from  the  building.  Right  over  these  shingles,  but  leaving  about 
five  inches  of  them  to  the  weather,  we  begin  to  lay  the  roof  paper. 

"The  south  front  contains  a  large  door  in  the  middle  of  each  pen, 
with  a  window  on  each  side  of  it.  This  door  is  41-2x6  1-2  feet;  it  is 
divided  into  two  parts;  the  upper  part,  which  is  21-2x41-2,  is  hinged 
to  the  plate,  swings  upward  against  the  rafters,  and  is  held  in  place  by  two 
hooks.  On  stormy  days  or  at  night  in  mild  weather  this  part  of  the 
door  is  left  open  and  a  cloth  curtain  placed  in  the  opening.  The  lower 
part  of  the  door  is  hinged  at  the  side,  and  swings.  The  cloth  curtain  is 
a  two-inch  frame  on  which  oiled  muslin  is  tacked.  The  windows  are  ordi- 
nary two-sash  twelve-light  windows,  and  can  be  opened  up  and  down  at 
will.     When  the  weather  is  settled  we  leave  both  windows  and  door  open 


FRONT   OF    HOUSE,    SHOWING   MOVABLE   GATES   DOWN 


276 


The   Poultry    Book 


all  the  time;  the  house  is  then  practically  an  open  shed,  and  the  most 
comfortable  place  possible  for  the  hens  in  summer.  A  small  opening 
about  a  foot  square  allows  the  hens  access  to  the  yard  when  the  lower 
part  of  the  door  is  closed. 

"The  divisions  between  pens  are  made  solid,  except  the  doors,  which 
are  two-inch  wire  netting  nailed  to  four-inch  frames.  A  good-fitting  door 
is  our  hobby,  and  ours  fit  well ;  they  are  hung  on  double-spring  hinges, 
and  work  perfectly  both  ways.     Gomg  through  the  pens  with  a  pail  in 


SHOWING    ARRANGEMENT    OF    ROOSTS    AND    NESTS    IN        NEW    IDEA 


each  hand,  it  is  no  trouble  to  push  the  doors  with  the  foot  going 
or  coming,  and  we  economize  the  room  which  the  passageway  would 
occupy.  x^long  the  back  wall,  eighteen  inches  from  the  floor,  is 
placed  the  droppings  board,  and  six  inches  above  this  two  roosts, 
which  are  2x7,,  with  corners  rounded  off  and  laid  on  the  two-inch 
side.  Sixteen  inches  above  there  is  a  row  of  coops  the  length  of  the 
pen.  These  coops  we  use  for  spare  males,  broody  hens,  or  for  a  trio 
preparatory  to  shipping.  Under  the  droppings  board  are  the  trap  nests. 
In  the  division  between  pens  are  the  drinking  vessels,  raised  ten  inches 
from  the  floor.  These  are  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  are  fourteen 
inches  in  diameter  and  six  inches  deep." 


MALAY     COCK     AND     HENS. 


Practical    Poultry    Houses  277 

An   Excellent   Canadian   House 

The  poultry  house  of  L.  H.  Baldwin,  of  Canada,*  is  well  planned  and 
has  given  good  results.  The  point  of  excellence  in  if  is  that  the  fowls  are 
allowed  exercise  in  the  open  air  and  are  at  the  same  time  protected  from 
the  wind.     It  also  furnishes  a  warm  roosting-pen. 

It  is  a  frame  building  seventy-two  feet  long  and  ten  feet  deep,  and  is 
divided  into  four  scratching-sheds  and  four  roosting-pens.  The  ground 
plan  is  shown  in  Figure  i.  The  sills  are  4x4  cedar,  resting  on  large  stones. 
The  studding  is  2  x  4  hemlock.  The  top  of  the  sill  is  one  foot  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  a  base-board  is  fastened  on  the  inside  of  the 
sill ;  the  floor  of  the  house  is  filled  with  sand  to  the  top  of  the  base-board, 
and  the  earth  is  banked  up  on  the  outside  to  the  same  level.  The  stones 
upon  which  the  sills  rest  are  placed  at  varying  distances  to  meet  the  joists 
and  at  intervals  of  about  eight  feet.  The  north  wall  is  four  feet  high  from 
the  top  of  the  sill,  and  the  south  wall  seven  feet  high.  In  the  north  wall 
the  studding  is  placed  at  each  corner  of  the  roosting-pens  and  an  additional 
one  in  each  center,  also  at  the  corner  of  each  scratching-shed,  and  an 
additional  one  in  the  center.  In  the  south  wall  the  studding  is  placed  so 
as  to  accommodate  the  window.  At  the  east  end  an  extra  stud  stands  as 
a  doorpost,  and  one  at  the  west  end,  in  the  center.  The  rafters  are  2x4 
hemlock,  placed  at  two-feet  centers.  On  the  outside  of  the  studding 
and  rafters  ordinary  lumber  is  used,  running  the  boards  lengthwise. 
The  ends  of  the  building,  the  north  wall  and  the  south  fronts  of  the  roosting- 
pens  are  covered  with  a  two-ply  "ready  roofing,"  and  for  the  roof 
three-ply  "ready  roofing."  A  scantling  2x4  reaches  from  the  north  sill 
to  the  south  sill  at  the  base  of  each  division.  The  division  wall  between 
the  scratching-shed  and  the  roosting-pen  is  made  of  rough  lumber  on  the 
scratching-shed  side,  with  a  lining  of  tar  felt  nailed  on  the  interior  of  these 
boards,  and  battened  closely  with  laths  to  make  the  joints  of  the  tar  felt 
complete.  The  division  wall  between  the  roosting-pens  is  made  of  seven- 
eighths  tongued-and-grooved  flooring,  and  the  other  interior  walls  of  the 
roosting-pens  are  lined  with  seven-eighths  tongued-and-grooved  dressed 
material-.  The  ceiling  is  of  the  same.  Before  putting  on  this  dressed 
material,  a  second  layer  of  tar  felt  was  placed  between  the  sheathing  and 
rafters,  so  that  there  is  a  dead-air  space.     The  large  doors  between  the 

♦Described  in  "Bulletin  No.  127,"  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture. 


278 


The  Poultry  Book 


scratching-sheds  and  the  roosting-pens  are  about  three  inches  thick,  made 
of  two  thicknesses  of  seven-eighths  tongued-and-grooved  dressed  material, 


FiR. 
1. 


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JO     f     jO 

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o 


n 


ROOF 


JSocytci- 


Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 

DETAILS    OF    MR.    BALDWIN'S    SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSE 

with  a  space  of  one  inch  between,  and  Hned  with  tar  felt  on  the  inside. 
These  doors  are  raised  a  foot  above  the  level  of  the  sills,  and  in  this 
space,  near  the  south  wall,  is  cut  openings  ten  inches  wide,  furnished 
with  sliding  doors. 

The  droppings  board  is  three  feet  wide  and  eighteen  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  sills.  Tw^o  roosts,  each  2x3,  are  placed  on  the  fiat  side, 
fastened  together  by  a  cross  strip  which  is  hinged  to  the  north  wall.  Two 
legs  support  the  roosts  on  the  outer  side.  The  roosts  being  hinged,  they 
can  be  lifted  up  and  fastened  to  the  roof  so  as  to  leave  a  clear  space 
when  making  the  daily  cleaning.  The  roosts  come  short  of  each  wall  by 
about  two  inches.  Three  nests  each  eighteen  inches  square  are  allowed 
to  each  pen.  Against  the  inside  division,  between  the  roosting-pens, 
a  twelve-inch  board  extends  on  the  level  of  the  droppings  board  to  within 


Practical    Poultry   Houses 


279 


twelve  inches  of  the  door,  and  an  upright  twelve-inch  board  is  fastened 
to  the  end  of  this  and  runs  up  to  the  ceiling.  To  correspond  with 
it,  a  board  is  placed  against  the  opposite  wall,  and  a  cotton  curtain 
on  a  two-inch  roller  is  fastened  to  the  ceiling.  This  curtain  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines  across  pens  in  Figure  4.  When  this  curtain  is  down  it 
comes  to  about  two  inches  below  the  level  of  the  droppings  board.  The 
purpose  is  to  protect  the  fowls  on  very  cold  nights.  Mr.  Baldwin  has 
found  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  it  when  the  pens  contain  more  than 
fifteen  birds ;  but  if  the  number  is  reduced,  and  the  thermometer  drops  to 
the  neighborhood  of  zero,  it  is  well  to  let  it  down. 

The  windows  in  front  of  the  roosting-pens  are  each  three  feet  wide 
and  two  feet  six  inches  high,  containing  six  panes  10  x  12  inches  each. 
The  windows  are  placed  high  in  the  front  wall  and  slide  to  the  right  and 
left.  The  windows  being  placed  high  up,  the  sun  in  winter,  when  it  is 
low  in  the  heavens,  shines  upon  the  roost  and  droppings  board.  The  door 
between  the  roosting-pens,  which  is  also  a  foot  above  the  level  of  the  sills, 


Phofos;ynph  by  Prof.  IV.  G.  John 
AN    ORCHARD    RANGE    ON    THE    POULTRY    FARM    OF    WHITE    AND    RICE,    NEW    YORK 


is  of  seven-eighths-inch  stuff,  the  upper  half  being  made  of  wire  netting. 
The  front  of  each  scratching-shed  is  divided  in  two  by  the  center  studding, 
on  each  side  of  which  there  are  cotton  screens  hinged  at  the  top  and  reach- 


28o  The    Poultry   Book 

ing  down  to  within  one  foot  of  the  top  of  the  sill,  and,  when  down,  close 
upon  the  top  of  a  rain-board  which  slopes  to  the  outside,  so  that  rain  beating 
against  the  cotton  screen  is  carried  outside,  thus  keeping  the  interior  dry. 
These  screens  swing  up  to  the  roof  and  are  there  caught  by  hooks  from  the 
rafters.  The  front  of  each  scratching-shed  is  closed  with  two-inch  mesh 
wire  netting.  (One-inch  mesh  should  have  been  used  to  keep  out  the 
sparrows,  which  now  get  in  and  fly  off  with  a  lot  of  grain.)  An  eaves- 
trough  runs  the  length  of  the  building,  distributing  the  water  east  and 
west.  Drinking  fountains  are  placed  on  the  end  of  the  board  that  runs  out 
from  the  droppings  board,  and  on  the  wall  opposite  hang  the  boxes  for 
oyster  shells  and  grit.  The  windows  of  the  roosting-pens  are  open  every 
day.  Of  course,  when  the  weather  is  stormy  or  bitterly  cold  they  are 
open  only  for  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
When  the  sun  is  shining  brightly  they  may  be  left  open  for  some  hours. 
This  thoroughly  ventilates  the  house,  dries  up  all  moisture,  and  keeps 
the  place  clean  and  sweet.  The  screen  in  front  of  the  scratching-shed 
is  let  down  only  on  very  cold  days  and  when  the  weather  is  cold  and 
stormy,  the  idea  being  to  keep  the  open  shed  dry  where  the  birds  take 
exercise  in  the  open  air. 

This  method  of  housing  poultry  keeps  the  stock  in  the  most  vigorous 
health,  and  this  is  the  secret  of  success  in  obtaining  a  plentiful  supply  of 
fertile  eggs  in  winter. 

The  Scratching-shed  House 

A  practical  poultry  house  with  curtained-front  scratching-shed  was 
recently  described  by  the  writer  as  follows :  We  give  herewith  plans  for  a 
continuous  poultry  house  with  alternating  pens  and  sheds,  the  sheds 
having  curtained  fronts  and  all  the  space  within  the  house  being  utilized. 
]\Iany  years'  study  of  poultry-house  problems  has  convinced  us  that  this 
alternating-shed-and-pen  plan  is  the  best,  all  things  considered.  No  house 
plan  is  perfect ;  we  have  to  balance  advantages  against  disadvantages,  and 
should  choose  the  plan  which  combines  the  greatest  number  of  advantages 
with  fewest  disadvantages,  and  so  firmly  are  we  convinced  of  the  general 
excellence  of  this  pen-and-shed  plan  that  if  we  were  erecting  a  poultry 
plant  for  200  or  300  (or  2,000  or  3,000)  head  of  fowls  that  is  the  plan  we 
would  use. 

Each  combined  pen  and  shed  is  18  x  10  feet,  the  curtained-front  shed 


Practical   Poultry    Houses 


28r 


being  lo  x  lo  and  the  closed  roosting-pen  being  8  x  lo — room  sufficient 
for  twenty-five  fowls  of  the  American  or  thirty  of  the  Mediterranean 
varieties;  no  walk  is  required  because  the  walk  is  through  gates  and  doors, 
from  shed  to  pen  and  pen  to  shed,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  house  and 
out  the  other  end.  We  have  seen  this  plan  given  with  a  roosting-pen  at 
the  end,  then  two  sheds  and  two  pens,  etc.  Don't  do  that !  By  bringing 
the  closed  roosting-pens  together  in  pairs  they  contribute  to  each  other's 
warmth,  and  every  pen  has  the  protection  of  the  shed  beyond;  the  end 
apartment  should  always  be  a  shed.  The  ventilation  (so  much  desired) 
is  very  varied,  and  can  be  adapted  to  the  different  seasons  in  half  a  dozen 


CONTINUOUS,    CURTAINED  -  FRONT     SCRATCHING    SHED      POULTRY  HOUSE  . 


Curtain  EC -Front 
Scratching  Sheid 


JO     X        JO    FT 


Curtained  -  Front 
Scratching-   Shed 


A 


OS 


KoosTiNa  Room 
X    JO  FT 


Roosting   Room 
a    X   lOFT. 


lO     X    JO  FT 


O'B 


/^ 


L 


Ground    Plan    of    Pens    and    Sheds 

THE    CONTINUOUS    SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSE 


different  ways.  In  summer  the  doors  and  windows  are  all  wide  open, 
excepting  the  door  between  two  pens,  and  the  curtains  all  hooked  up 
against  the  roof  out  of  the  way 

When  the  nights  begin  to  be  real  frosty  in  the  fall,  close  the  windows. 
in  fronts  of  pens,  but  leave  shed  curtains  hooked  up  and  doors  between 
sheds  and  pens  open.  When  it  begins  to  freeze  at  night,  close  the  curtains 
in  fronts  of  sheds,  but  still  leave  doors  between  pens  and  sheds  open. 
These  doors  (including  slide  door  A)  are  never  closed  excepting  on  nights 
of  solid  cold,  say  from  five  to  twenty  degrees  above  zero;  and  for  zero 
nights  (five  degrees  above  to  away  below)  close  the  curtains  in  front  of 
roosts,  and  all  doors  and  windows  should  be  closed.     An  additional  pro- 


282 


The   Poultry    Book 


~""^^  ^  <X     Front  or  Scratching  Shed       -^//owa/,?  Ci/rtains  ,  one  DOWN. 

•^  ^  ONE  HOOKED  UP    fO   ROOF 


Nest  Boxes. entrance  in  rear 


Feed    Trough 

DETAILS    OF    SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSE 


tection  against  cold  in  extremely  cold  latitudes  would  be  to  double-wall  the 
roosting-pen  from  the  sill  up  to  the  plate  and  then  four  feet  up  the  roof, 
packing  the  spaces  with  straw  or  swale  hay  (seaweed,  where  it  can  be  had, 
as  it  is  vermin  proof) ;  then  have  a  hinged  curtain  to  drop  down  to  within 
six  inches  of  front  of  roost  platform,  going  a  foot  below  it;  this  curtain 
we  would  close  only  on  zero  nights. 

Sills  and  plates  are  all  of  2  x  4  scantling,  halved  and  nailed  together 
at  joints.  The  rafters,  the  corner  studs  and  studs  in  centers  of  fronts  of 
sheds  are  all  2  x  4 ;  the  intermediate  studs  are  2x3.  Set  the  sills  on  stone 
foundation,  or  on  posts  set  into  the  ground  below  the  usual  frost  line, 
the  posts  being  set  five  feet  apart  excepting  in  front  of  pens,  wdiere  they 
would  come  four  feet  apart,  there  being  a  post  at  comers  of  each  pen  and 
shed  and  one  between ;  the  rafters  should  be  two  feet  apart.  The  sills  we 
would  set  a  foot  and  a  half  above  average  ground-level ;  put  hemlock 
(or  some  hard  wood)  boards  from  bottom  half  of  sill  down  to  ground, 
nailing  it  securely  to  sill  and  foundation  posts,  then  fill  up  inside  to  bottom 
of  sills  and  slope  up  the  ground  outside  to  same  height.  Toe-nail  studs 
to  sills  firmly,  plates  to  studs  ditto,  and  rafters  to  plates.  ]\Iake  front 
studs  seven  feet  (or  at  least  six  and  a  half  feet)  in  the  clear,  and  back  studs 


Practical    Poultry   Houses 


283 


five  feet  (or  four  and  a  half  feet)  in  the  clear;  of  course,  studs  in  front  of 
pens  will  be  set  to  take  window-frames  (or  the  window-sash,  if  no 
frames  are  used),  and  in  partitions  the  studs  will  be  set  to  take  the 
two-and-a-half-feet-wide  doors.  All  of  this  framing  is  simple,  and  any 
man  who  can  saw  off  a  board  or  joist  reasonably  square  and  drive  nails 
can  build  such  a  house,  the  slight  bevel  at  each  end  of  rafters  being 
quite  as  simple.  All  boarding  is  lengthwise,  the  boards  being  firmly 
nailed  and  close  joints  made  everywhere.  Cover  the  boarding,  both  roof 
and  walls,  with  a  good  sheathing  paper  (or  sheathing  quilt)  and  then  put 
on  the  outside  a  covering  of  some  good  roofing  material. 

The  prepared  roofings  come  with  nails  and  tin-heads  inside  each  roll, 
the  price  at  which  they  are  sold  covering  everything  of  that  kind.  As  a 
general  rule,  these  roofings  should  be  applied  lengthwise  of  roofs  and 
walls,  and  where  doors  and  windows  are  set  in  walls  bring  the  covering 
material  out  over  top  of  door  or  window-frames.  A  twelve-light  window  of 
3  X  10  glass  is  set  in  front  of  each  pen,  and  all  doors  and  gates  are  two 
and  a  half  feet  wide  by  six  feet  high.  Have  plenty  of  hooks  and  screw- 
eyes  to  secure  doors  and  gates  back  against  the  walls  and  curtains  up 
against  the  roofs,  each  large  curtain  in  front  of  shed  needing  two  hooks 


COLONY  HOUSE  AND    OPEN    RANGE   ON    POULTR 


Photograph  by  Pre/.  IV.  G.  J.  hns 
TE    AND    RICE,  NEW   YORK 


284  The  Poultry  Book 

and  screw-eyes,  one  at  each  lower  corner,  to  prevent  it  from  twisting. 
All  windows  should  be  protected  by  two-inch-mesh  wire  nettmg  tacked 
to  inside  of  frame  to  keep  fowls  from  dashing  against  it  if  startled 
and  keep  varmints  out  when  window  is  left  open  at  .night.  To  keep  the 
fowls  enclosed  when  curtains  are  raised,  cover  the  front  of  shed  with  wire 
netting,  having  one  section  of  it  made  as  a  gate  to  open  and  let  the  birds 
out  into  yards.  This  large  gate  will  be  found  very  convenient  when 
bringing  in  coops  of  birds  from  the  fields. 

The  frames  for  the  curtains  are  made  of  good,  sound  i  x  3-inch  furring, 
halved  and  securely  nailed  at  corners,  and  a  brace  set  diagonally  across 
back  of  frame  to  firm  it.  Care  must  be  taken  that  gates  between  sheds 
do  not  come  m  conflict  with  these  curtains  when  they  are  hooked  up;  as 
they  are  left  up  seven  or  eight  months  in  the  year  and  taken  down  nights 
and  stormy  days  four  or  five  months,  care  must  be  exercised  to  have  the 
gates  swing  clear.  The  doors  from  sheds  to  pens  swing  into  the  pens 
and  are  out  of  the  way  of  the  curtains.  Another  point  to  be  considered 
is  carrying  off  the  drip  from  the  curtains  in  case  of  a  driving  rain  from 
the  south.  As  there  is  usually  (in  winter)  six  inches  of  scratching  material 
in  the  sheds,  the  curtains  should  not  come  down  to  the  sills,  and  a  board 
eight  or  ten  inches  wide  should  be  set  slightly  slanting  in  from  the  sill  to 
just  inside  the  bottom  of  the  curtain  fram^;  such  drip-board  secures  the 
scratching  material  within  the  shed  and  conveys  the  drip  outside  the  sill. 
The  roost  platform  should  be  three  feet  wide  and  the  full  length  of  roosting- 
pen,  excepting  that  it  should  be  short  enough  to  lift  out  easily  for  house- 
cleaning  ;  strong  cleats  should  be  nailed  t-o  each  end  wall  to  support  it, 
and  the  platform  should  be  two  feet  above  sill  level. 

Make  the  platform  of  matched  boards,  secured  by  two  cleats  across- 
bottom,  an  "edge"  of  two-and-a-half-inch-wide  furring  being  a  decided 
improvement,  keeping  the  droppings  enclosed;  for  convenience,  a  space 
a  foot  in  length  can  be  cut  out  of  middle  of  front  edge  through  which  to 
scrape  the  droppings.  The  two  roosts  are  made  of  2  x  3  scantlings,  slightly 
rounded  on  top  and  cut  eight  inches  shorter  than  platform,  so  ends  of  roost 
come  four  inches  within  the  platform.  Set  roosts  fourteen  inches  apart, 
which  will  bring  them  eight  inches  within  the  platform  front  and  rear. 
Two  cross-arms  are  hinged  to  wall  at  back  eight  inches  above  platform 
and  terminate  with  legs  eight  inches  long  leading  to  platform ;  the  roosts 
are  swung  up  and  hooked  against  the  wall  while  cleaning  off  droppings. 


CORNISH     INDIAN     PULLET 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison  VVi 


Practical   Poultry   Houses 


285 


Describing  the  scratching-shed  houses  with  double  runs,  the  Reliable 
Poultry  Journal  says:  "The  laying  houses  with  scratching-sheds,  illus- 
trated herewith,  are  used  extensively  on  egg  farms  and  by  many  breeders 
of  exhibition  stock  throughout  New  England  and  the  East.  It  will  be 
noted  in  the  illustration  that  these  houses  are  provided  with  yards  on  both 
sides  of  the  house.  The  short  yards  can  be  used  for  the  fowls  of  either 
row  of  houses  and  as  alternate  runs,  so  that  the  regular  yards  can  be 


SCRATCHING-SHED    HOUSES    W 


By  courtesy  o/" Reliable  Poultry  journal" 
MI    DOUBLE    RUNS 


plowed  up  and  planted  to  corn  in  order  to  purify  the  soil.  This  insures 
also  a  supply  of  green  food  for  the  stock  birds  throughout  the  year.  We 
especially  recommend  this  style  of  yarding.  The  dimensions  of  the  houses 
and  yards  shown  are  as  follows:  The  closed  part  of  the  house  10  x  15, 
scratching-shed  10x10;  the  main  yards  25x75  feet  and  the  short 
yards  25x25  feet.  Each  of  these  houses,  with  yards  connected,  will 
accommodate  from  ten  to  fifty  fowls,  depending  on  the  object  for  which 
they  are  kept.  If  intended  for  breeding  birds,  flocks  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
birds  will  be  large  enough..     If  the  fowls  are  kept  solely  for  the  production  of 


286 


The    Poultry   Book 


market  eggs,  from  thirty  to  fifty  hens  can  be  kept  in  each  closed  house  and 
will  do  well.  Green  food,  like  rye,  oats  or  blue  grass,  can  be  kept  growing 
in  these  yards  the  entire  season — the  rye  if  planted  in  the  fall  will  supply 


ARDANneKcnr  or  Roosrs 


J 

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7 

, 

i 

H 

\ 

FPOrsT  VltW    WITH  WIRE  SCREEN  &DOOH  TO  5HED. 


.^**f^'  111 , .•J'> 


' 

' 

-*, 

1  c 

■0 

c 

J 

— 

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1 1  1 1  nil 

OROUND    PLAN. 


MRAmEM[NT  or  N£iTJ. 
DETAILS    OF    SCRATCHIXG-SHED    HOUSES    WITH    DOUBLE    RUXS 


^ 


green  food  throughout  the  winter  and  in  the  early  spring  whenever  the  snow 
is  off  the  ground.  We  recommend  gates  as  shown  in  the  cut — large  gates 
next  to  the  house,  so  that  a  wagon  may  be  driven  in,  thus  facilitating 
changing  the  litter  and  cleaning  out  the  house. 

"The  windows  of  these  houses  should  be  comparatively  small,  say 
2i^  X  5  feet — that  is,  windows  made  of  two  six-light  sashes,  one  sliding  to 
the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left.  These  half -sashes  are  inexpensive.  A 
still  better  plan  is  to  hinge  them  at  the  top  so  that  they  can  be  swung 
outward,  thus  keeping  out  the  rain  when  open  in  the  siimmer  time.  Prop 
them  one-third  open.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  whitewash  them  with  a  view 
to  keeping  out  a  portion  of  the  heat  during  hot  weather ;  have  them  clear 
and  clean  in  cold  weather. 

"  In  a  majority  of  cases  the  housgs  of  this  style  that  exist  in  New 
England  and  the  East  are  covered  with  roofing  fabric  held  in  place  by 
wooden  battens,  but  we  recommend  a  shingled  roof.  For  roofs  having 
a  steep  pitch  shingles  will  be  found  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory  in  the 
end.  Twelve-inch-wide  boards  will  do  for  siding,  and  the  house  should 
be  snugly  lined  with  good  building  paper  held  in  place  by  laths,  or  should 


Practical    Poultry    Houses  287 

have  double  walls  and  the  inside  of  the  outside  wall  lined  with  building 
paper  or  tar  felt.  There  is  no  danger  whatever  of  making  a  poultry  house 
too  warm.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  unwise  to  go  to  unnecessary  expense. 
Make  sure  that  no  draft  can  get  in  through  cracks  to  strike  the  fowls 
when  at  roost,  for  this  is  certain  to  result  in  colds,  which  may  end  in  roup. 
Do  not  worry  about  ventilators,  provided  the  houses  are  kept  reasonably 
clean.  Plenty  of  fresh  air  will  find  its  way  in,  especially  during  the 
winter,  when  it  is  most  needed.  No  ordinary  poultry  house  is  likely  to 
be  built  tight  enough  to  keep  out  the  necessary  fresh  air. 

"The  detail  plan  shows  an  enlarged  front  view  of  this  plan  of  house 
with  scratching- shed,  giving  dimensions.  Any  person  who  is  handy  with 
tools  can  by  consulting  these  illustrations  build  a  house  of  this  style  and 
equip  a  poultry  plant  on  this  plan. 

"The  sectional  view  shows  the  style  of  partition  recommended  for  use 


By  couytesy  of  White  and  Rice  Photograph  by  Prof.  jr.  G.  Johnson 

GENERAL    VIEW    OF    AN    OPEN    RANGE    ON    FERNWOOD    FARM,    WESTCHESTER 

COUNTY,    NEW    YORK 

in  dividing  each  closed  section  into  two  apartments  and  for  use  between 
the  scratching-sheds.  It  is  advised  that  these  partitions  in  both  locations  be 
built  up  solid  from  four  to  six  feet,  so  that  there  will  be  no  fighting  through 


288  The    Poultry    Book 

the  wires  by  the  birds  either  when  on  the  roosts  or  in  the  scratching-sheds. 
Furthermore,  this  plan  will  make  the  houses  and  sheds  warmer  and  will 
lessen  the  danger  of  drafts  blowing  over  the  fowls  at  night. 

The  ground  plan  shows  the  laying  house  with  scratching-shed 
attached,  also  location  of  roosts  and  nests.  The  detail  shows  arrangement 
of  nests.  These  should  be  located  on  the  ground  underneath  the  windows. 
It  will  be  understood  that  this  plan  can  be  added  to  or  enlarged  as  desired. 
A  single  house  with  scratching-shed  can  be  built,  or  a  double  house  with 
two  scratching-sheds  and  yards,  or  any  number  of  the  double  houses, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration." 


A    LOXG    HOUSE    AT    THE    WHITE    LEGHORX    POULTRY    YARDS 

A  Continuous  Poultry  House 

The  long,  continuous  poultry  house  is  in  use  at  the  White  Leghorn 
Poultry  Yards  of  New  York  State,  and  was  especially  designed  for  housing 
White  Leghorn  breeders.  It  is  250  feet  long  by  16  feet  wide.  It 
has  a  floor  of  matched  seven-eighths-inch  boards.  The  outside  walls  are 
first  boarded,  then  covered  with  sheathing  paper  and  clapboarded.  The 
inside  of  the  building  is  boarded  up  with  matched  stuff  on  the  inside  of  the 
studs,  making  a  four-inch  dead-air  space  between  the  walls.  The  ceilings 
are  made  of  matched  boards  laid  at  the  level  of  the  plates.  In  this  ceihng 
there  is  a  trap-door  two  feet  square  over  each  pen,  connecting  with  the 
attic  chamber  above. 

In  each  gable  end  of  the  house  there  is  a  full-sized  window,  and,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  there  are  three  ventilating  cupolas  at  regular 
intervals  from  the  peak  of  the  roof.  In  this  way  provision  is  made  for  proper 
ventilation  of  the  pens  without  any  direct  drafts.  If  desired,  straw 
can  be  placed  in  this  attic,  covering  each  of  the  trap-doors  when  open, 
and  this  will  provide  an  effective  means  of  getting  rid  of  all  moisture  in  the 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


289 


INTERIOR    OF    LONG    HOUSE,    SHOWING   PARTITIONS   BETWEEN    PENS 


poultry  house  in  the  winter.  On  many  poultry  plants  this  system  of 
using  straw  above  the  ceiling  to  afford  diffusive  ventilation  is  practised 
with  great  success. 
There  is  a  door  at 
each  end  of  the 
house  opening  into 
an  alleyway  which 
is  three  and  a  half 
feet  wide  and  ex- 
tends the  entire 
length  of  the  build- 
ing on  the  north 
side.  This  passage- 
way is  separated 
from  the  pens  by  a 
tight  matched 
board     partition. 

The  pens  are  twelve  feet  square,  with  two  windows  in  the  front  (or 
south)  side  of  each  pen.  A  door  opens  from  the  alleyway  into  each  pen, 
and  there  is  a  door  in  each  partition  between  the  pens.  The  roosting 
platforms  and  nests  are  placed  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations, 

which  also  show 
the  construction  of 
the  partitions  be- 
tween the  pens,  the 
location  of  f  o  o  d- 
trough  and  water- 
dish,  the  windows, 
and  the  slide  door 
which  connects  with 
the  runs.  A  long 
house  of  this  de- 
scription, while 
somewhat  expensive 
to  build,  possesses 
many  advantages,  and  on  a  large,  permanent  poultry  plant  will  more 
than  make  up  for  the  first  cost  in  the  ease  and  economy  of  feeding,  the 


INTERIOR    OF    LONG    HOUSE,    LOOKING   TOWARD    THE    WALK 


290  The    Poultry    Book 

Avarmth  of  the  house,  ease  of  caring  for  the  fowls,  and  the  simpHcity 
of  ventilation.  If  there  is  any  tendency  to  drafts  in  the  building,  this 
can  readily  be  controlled  by  using  burlap  curtains  over  the  wire  partitions 
between  the  pens.  Burlap  bran  sacks  cost  about  two  and  a  half  cents 
each  and  will  cover  about  ten  square  feet. 

This  style  of  house  has  been  in  use  on  the  White  Leghorn  farm  for 
several  years  and  has  been  found  both  practical  and  economical.  It  com- 
bines very  completely  the  laymg  house  with  the  breeding  house.  The  144 
square  feet  of  floor  space  in  each  pen  affords  ample  accommodation  for 
twenty-five  laying  fowls  or  from  fifteen  to  twenty  breeders  and  a  male. 
On  this  plant,  where  the  alternating  system  of  handling  males  is  practised, 
a  small  coop  for  the  extra  male  is  located  on  the  wall  in  one  corner  of  the 
pen.  The  male  bird  is  confined  in  this  coop  for  a  few  days  while  his 
partner  runs  with  the  birds,  then  the  males  are  exchanged  at  night,  the 
one  w^iich  has  been  running  with  the  flock  being  cooped  up  and  the  other 
set  at  libert}^ 

HoT-wATER  Pipe  Brooder  House 

Most  large  poultry  farms  make  use  of  brooder  houses  in  which  to  raise 
the  chicks,  the  heat  being  supplied  by  a  hot-water  heater  and  conveyed 
to  the  brooder  pens  by  a  bank  of  hot-water  pipes.  We  give  illustrations 
of  one  of  the  best  types  of  these  brooder  houses,  by  courtesy  of  the  Lake- 
wood  Poultry  Farm,  of  New  Jersey.  This  brooder  house  is  no  feet  long, 
six  feet  high  at  the  back  and  five  feet  high  in  front,  with  a  long  and  short 


r        a 

HOT-WATER    PIPE    BROODER    HOUSE,    LAKEWOOD    I'oT 


roof,  the  apex  of  the  roof  being  over  the  partition  between  the  walk  and 
the  hover   pens.      Ten  feet   of    the  house    are   occupied  by  the  heater 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


291 


pit,  containing  heater,  chimney  and  coal-bin,  and  the  100  feet  of  brooder 
hovers  is  divided  into  twenty-three  pens,  each  calculated  for  fifty  chicks, 


INTERIOR    OF    HOT-WATER    PIPE    BROODER   HOUSE,    SHOWING    DETAIL    OF    PEN 
PARTITIONS,    HOVERS,    ETC. 


making  a  capacity  of  more  than  1,000  chicks  in  100  feet  of  brooder  house. 
The  baby  chicks  need  the  highest  temperature,  hence  are  placed  in  the 
three-feet-wide  pens  nearest  the  heater. 

These  first  five  small  pens  are  succeeded  by  fi^'e  pens  four  feet  wide 
by  twelve  feet  long,  and  the  balance  of  the  house  is  divided  into  thirteen 
pens  each  five  feet  wide.  A  bank  of  two  flow  and  four  return  pipes  extends 
the  entire  length  of  the  house,  rising  slightly  from  four  inches  above  the 
floor  next  the  heater  to  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  floor  at  the  farther 
end.  The  pipes  are  covered  by  "hovers,"  a  covering  of  boards  two  feet 
wide  and  as  long  as  the  pen  is  wide,  a  strip  of  felting  being  tacked  along 
the  front  and  rear  edges,  this  felting  being  slit  into  ribbons  each  about 
three  inches  wide. 

A  few  years  ago  these  brooder  houses  were  built  with  the  hovers 
close  up  to  the  walk,  and  all  feeding  and  watering  was  done  in  the  pens 
in  front  of  the  hovers;  the  later  method  is  to  put  the  hovers  out  three 
feet  from  the  walk  partition,  giving  a  space  for  feeding  and  watering  next 
the  walk.     This  plan  has  the  further  advantage  of  giving  a  better  circu- 


292 


The  Poultry  Book 


lation  of  air  under  the  hovers,  and  should  the  temperature  be  a  bit  too 
warm  for  comfort  under  the  hovers  the  chicks  stretch  their  heads  and 
necks  (and  frequently  their  whole  bodies)  out  into  the  pens.  By  this  plan, 
also,  there  is  no  possibility  of  a  weak  chick  being  crowded  back  into  a 
corner  and  smothered;  if  crowded,  he  is  simply  pushed  out  from  under 
the  hover  and  runs  back  under  it  again  at  another  place. 

The  illustrations  well  show  the  details  of  pen  partitions,  which  are  of 
boards  for  one  and  a  half  feet  of  the  height  and  wire  netting  above ;  there 
is  a  slide  door  in  each  partition  which  is  opened  for  driving  the  chicks 
through  from  one  pen  to  another,  and  a  small  trap-door,  operated  by  a 
cord  leading  back  to  the  walk,  opens  into  a  small  yard  (or  runway)  out- 
of-doors.  Two  cleats  about  six  inches  out  from  the  hovers  secure  a 
board  for  confining  the  chicks  close  to  the  hovers  in  very  cold  weather, 
and  are  useful  to  prevent  the  chicks  hiding  beneath  the  pipes  when  being 
driven  through  from  pen  to  pen. 

A  half -window  is  set  in  the  south  front,  at  end  of  each  pen,  just  above 
the  trap-doors ;  these  windows  are  hinged  at  top,  and  may  be  swung  up 


BROODER  HOUSE  HEATER,  WITH  WALK  AT  THE  REAR 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


293 


m§m  ''^f^^  ^''^^^^ 


5REEDIXO-HOUSES    FOR    DUCKS,    WITH    HALF    THE    LENGTH    OF    YARDS    IN    WATER 


against  the  rafters  by  cords  operated  from  the  walk.  They  should 
be  screened  by  one -inch  mesh  wire  netting  to  exclude  chick  enemies 
during  warm  weather,  when  it  is  well  to  leave  the  windows  open  (or  partially 
open) .  A  serious  defect  in  hot-water-pipe  brooders  in  the  past  has  been  lack 
of  sufficient  heat  in  extremely  cold  weather.  To  make  the  house  abund- 
antly warm  there  must  be  a  heater  of  sufficient  capacity  for  the  maximum 
of  cold;  and  to  insure  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  whole  house  shall  not 
fall  too  low  a  bank  of  pipes  is  put  along  the  wall  at  the  back  (sometimes 
along  the  front  beneath  the  windows),  and  these  are  operated  in  very 
cold  weather  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  house  at  about  60  degrees. 
A  shut-off  valve  disconnects  these  pipes  when  the  weather  has  become 
mild  and  they  are  no  longer  needed. 

Another  decided  improvement  in  brooder  house  construction  is  an 
electric  regulator,  which  can  be  so  attached  to  the  draft-dampers  of  the 
heater  as  to  open  them  if  the  temperature  of  the  thermostat  (set  beneath 
one  of  the  hovers)  falls  below  the  point  desired  to  be  maintained.  With 
a  brooder  house  properly  equipped  with  hot -water  heater  and  electric 
regulator  the  problem  of  raising  chicks  in  winter  is  greatly  simplified. 

Houses  for  Ducks 

Growing  ducks  for  market  has  developed  into  a  business  of  con- 
siderable magnitude,  in-  some  instances  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand 
dollars  being  invested  in  the  buildings  of 'a  single  plant.     Twenty,  thirty, 


294 


The    Poultry    Book 


forty  or  fifty  thousand  ducks,  weighing  about  ten  pounds  to  the  pair, 
are  marketed  from  some  of  these  plants  each  year.     On  the  eastern  end  of 

Long  Island 
are  grouped 
several  great 
duck  plants. 
While  Long 
Island  ap- 
pears to  be  a 
favorable 
location  for 
duck  growing, 
there  are 
many  large 
duck      plants 

located  inland,  one  of  the  largest  in  America  being  in  Massachusetts; 
while  in  Pennsylvania  are  other  great  duck  ranches.  In  the  latter  State 
Messrs.  McCormick  and  McFetridge  recently  established  a  large  plant, 
and  this  has  been  selected  for  illustrating  in  this  article  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  duck  houses. 

This  Pennsylvania  farm  was  chosen  especially  for  a  duck  ranch 
because  of  its  combining  the  essential  qualifications  in  an  unusual  degree. 
The  land  is  slightly  rolling,  giving  excellent  drainage;  on  the  rear  half 


HI.    l.\L  I  B  \. 


)  L  ^  L    A  .\  U 


tROODER    HOUSE,    250    FEET    LONG 


there  is  a  snail  brook  well  adapted  for  water-yards  and  sheltered  on 
the  north  and  west.     Here  about  a  thousand  head  of  breeding  ducks  are 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


295 


kept.  About  half  of  these  are  in  small,  semi-detached  houses,  each  8  x  i6 
feet  in  size,  set  about  thirty  feet  back  from  the  pond  formed  by  damming 
the  small  brook.  Each  flock  of  fourteen  ducks  and  three  drakes  occupies 
a  pen  8x8  feet  and  has  a  yard  about  i6  x  6o  feet,  half  of  the  yard  being 
in  the  pond.  A  tramway  for  conveying  food  to  the  pens  extends  along 
the  front  of  the  houses.  Other  laying  houses,  i6  x  30  feet  and  accommo- 
dating fifty  ducks  each,  are  built  lower  down  the  brook,  and  the  ducks 
are  given  large  yards  extending  some    200  feet  across  the  little  valley. 


[NTERIOR    OF    NURSERY    BROODER,    SHOWING    HOVERS    AND    ALLEYWAY 


The  48  360-egg  incubators  are  housed  m  the  basement  story  of  a  build- 
ing 42  X  44  feet,  the  second  story  of  which  is  a  feather-drying  loft.  The 
incubator  cellar  is  set  eighteen  inches  below  the  ground-level  and  has  a 
brick  foundation  three  and  a  half  feet  high;  the  ground  outside  is  sloped 
up  to  top  of  foundation.  The  wooden  walls  of  the  incubator  rooms  are 
of  three  thicknesses  of  boards  with  sheathing  paper  between,  and  twelve 
half -windows,  hooded  to  exclude  the  rain,  give  light  and  air  to  the  room; 
three  cupolas  give  ventilation. 

From  the  incubators  the  baby  ducklings  are  taken  to  a  brooder 
house  25x250  feet,  in  the  ce^iter  wing  of  which  are  set  the  large 
hot -water  heaters  to  give  the  necessary  heat  to  the  brooders.  The  first 
one  hundred  feet,  of  this  house  contains  the  ''nursery  brooders."  This 
section  is  divided  into  pens  4  x  loj^  feet,  a  walk  four  feet  wide  extending 


296 


The    Poultry    Book 


COLD    BROODER 


through  the  entire  length  of  the  house  giving  access  to  the  hover  pens  for 
feeding  and  watering.  The  illustration  of  the  interior  of  the  nursery- 
brooder  house  shows  the  hot -water  pipes  and  hovers  set  three  feet  in  from 
the  walk,  which  gives  feeding  and  watering  space  between  the  hovers 
and  the  walk;  this  part  of  the  house  is  well  lighted  by  windows  in  the 
monitor  top,  which  windows  also  serve  for  ventilating.  Small  nms,  4  x  10 
feet,  give  outdoor  air  and  exercise  room  in  favorable  weather.  From  these 
nursery  brooder  pens  the  ducklings  are  driven  through  to  the  second 
brooder  house,  150  x  25  feet,  where  the  pens  are  6  x  loi^  feet  and  outside 
runs  6x15  feet.  Here  are  hot -water  pipes  and  hovers,  and  the  four-foot- 
wide  walk  extending  the  full  length  of  the  house ;  but  the  temperature  is 


FATTENING    SHED   AND   YARDS 


Practical    Poultry    Houses 


297 


lower,  and  the  ducks  are  gradually  moved  along  with  a  steadily  lower 
temperature,  until,  when  about  five  weeks'  old,  they  are  graduated  into  one 
of  the  cold  houses,  which  have  no  artificial  heat.  Of  these  there  are  several 
200,  250  and  300  feet  in  length  by  twenty -five  feet  in  width,  with  yards 
outside  for  exercise  and  fresh  air  and  simple  pens  within  for  sleeping- 
rooms.  These  cold  houses,  also  the  large  fattening  houses,  are  practically 
great  sheds  for  shelter  at  night,  and  in  stormy  weather  they  are  chiefly 
roofs  to  turn  off  the  rain.  Pekin  ducks  reach  market  maturity  in  about  ten 
weeks,  and  there  are  about  two  and  a  half  weeks  each  of  nursery  brooder, 
second  brooder,  cold  house  and  fattening  pens  on  the  way  to  market. 
On  such  a  great  duck  plant  as  this  the  buildings  are  located  and  built  to 
facilitate  the  necessary  work  in  the  most  efficient  manner,  to  the  end 
that  no  steps  be  wasted.     Everything  is  reduced  to  a  businesslike  system. 

Incubator  Houses 

Incubator  houses  are  best  made  in  half-cellars,  and  when  possible  should 
be  put  up  early  in  the  season,  so  they  will  become  thoroughly  dry,  and  should 
be  located  on  high,  dry  ground.  It  is  often  desirable  to  hatch  late  in  the  spring 
or  even  in  the  summer,  and  a  house  entirely  above  ground  then  gets  too  warm 
for  the  best 
work.  With  a 
half -cellar  the  air 
strikes  the  wall, 
which  the  outer 
ground  keeps 
cool,  and  the 
temperature  can 
be  kept  down 
to  sixty  or  sixty- 
five  degrees, 
excepting  in  the 
very  warmest 
weather.  A  row 
of  windows  is 
placed  on  either 

side,  well  up  toward  the  ceiling,  so  that  a  window  can  be  opened  on  either  side 
of  the  house  to  afford  ventilation  without  a  draught  striking  the  machines. 


^i 


By  courtesy  of  Cyphers  Incubator  Company 
FRONT    ELEVATION    OF    INCUBATOR    HOUSE 


298 


The    Poultry    Book 


By  courtesy  o_f  Cyphe 
GROUND    PLAN    OF    INCUBATOR    HOUSE 


Incubator  Company 


All  things  considered,  the  half -cellar  herewith  shown  is  one  of  the  best 
that  has  been  devised  for  the  purpose.  The  temperature  keeps  very  even 
and  there  is  just  enough  natural  moisture  in  the  air  to  give  the  best  results. 
To  build  it  requires  an  excavation  three  feet  deep  and  the  building  of  a 
wall  four  feet  high,  with  an  additional  three  feet  of  woodwork  above  it. 
Bank  the  earth  up  against  the  wall  so  as  to  make  the  cellar  four  feet  deep. 
The  door  is  in  one  end  of  the  building,  and  the  stairs  are  inside,  so  that 
they  are  safe  from  the  weather.  Three  half-windows  are  used  on  each 
side,  and  are  double  glass,  being  placed  on  each  side  of  the  window-frame. 
The  inside  of  the  room  of  the  cellar  is  sealed  with  matched  stuff.  The 
sealing  runs  inside  of  plate,  up  studs  and  rafters,  to  a  point  ten  feet  from 
the  floor,  where  it  crosses  on  the  tie  beams.  The  roof,  ends  and  sides  may 
be  either  shingled  or  papered.  In  such  an  incubator  cellar  it  is  well  to  have 
the  incubators  lefts  and  rights  for  greater  convenience  in  the  care  of  them. 

The  ground  plan  shows  a  half-cellar  arranged  for  ten  large-sized 
incubators,  but  the  size  of  cellar  can  obviously  be  adapted  to  the  number 
of  incubators  it  is  intended  to  run. 

The  incubator  cellar  is  best  set  three  feet  in  the  ground,  with  a  one- 
foot  banked  wall  above,  making  four  feet  in  all  under  ground.  There 
'should  be  eight  feet  head  room  from  the  floor  to  the  plates  or  ceiling. 
Do  not  build  a  lower  ceiling,  as  a  lower  room  will  not  give  sufficient  cubic 
feet  of  air  space  to  allow  the  air  to  be  kept  always  fresh. 


Practical    Poultry    Houses  299 

The  Brooder  House 

A  practical,  sensible  and  economical  house  for  brooding  chicks  or 
ducks  is  described  as  follows  by  Charles  A.  Cyphers,  president  of  the 
Cyphers  Incubator  Company :  ' '  The  most  popular  brooder  house  in  use 
to-day  is  the  hip-roof,  single  house.  This  house  may  be  seven  feet  at  the 
back,  eight  feet  at  the  ridge,  and  five  feet  at  the  front.  It  is  usually  put 
up  sixteen  feet  wide.  It  has  a  three-foot-eight-inch  walk  in  the  back, 
with  the  hover  runs  twelve  feet  long,  divided  off  in  five-foot  sections. 
To  each  five  feet  of  hover  run  there  should  be  one  six-light  8xio  window 
set  in  the  center  of  the  front,  about  two  feet  from  the  floor,  and  facing 
the  south.  Do  not  put  more  glass  in  a  brooder  front  than  this,  as 
it  makes  it  too  warm  in  summer  and  too  cold  in  the  winter,  and  there  is 
positively  no  advantage  gained.  It  is  well  to  put  at  least  two  windows  in 
the  back,  or  north  side,  of  each  twenty-five  feet  of  brooder  house.  These 
should  be  double  windows  for  use  in  the  winter  time;  the  outer  sash  can 
be  removed  in  the  summer,  and  the  inner  sash  should  be  hinged  so  that 
it  may  be  let  down  to  keep  the  building  cool  in  the  summer  time.  It  is 
well,  also,  to  hinge  the  front  windows  at  the  bottom,  so  that  they,  too, 
could  be  opened  during  the  warm  weather.  This  is  all  the  ventilation  that 
it  is  necessary  to  provide." 


THE    COMMON    DISEAvSES    OF    POULTRY 
Dr.   Nathan  W.   Sanborn,   Massachusetts 


iHE  twentieth-century  poultryman  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
knowledge  of  ten  years  ago.  He  wants  the  results  of 
the  investigations  of  the  times  in  which  he  lives,  and 
insists  on  getting  them  while  they  are  fresh  and  new. 
This  applies  not  only  to  breeds,  varieties,  methods  of 
housing,  and  feeding,  but  to  the  diseases  he  must  meet  from  year 
to  year.  It  is  a  sign  of  promised  success  when  a  poultryman  insists 
on  knowing  causes  and  prevention  of  disease  rather  than  cures. 
Sure-cures  for  the  ailments  of  poultry  are  only  too  many — and  it  is  well 
known  to  some  of  us  that  dependence  upon  these  "medicines"  has  ended 
in  the  failure  of  more  than  one  poultry  plant.  It  is  the  man  who  looks 
ahead,  learns  the  causes  of  disease  and  prevents  their  beginnings,  who 
gets  real  satisfaction  out  of  the  keeping  of  healthy  poultry.  So  you  will 
understand  at  the  outset  why  I  lay  so  much  emphasis  upon  prevention 
of  poultry  ailments.  Understand  thoroughly  the  pitfalls  of  disease, 
that  you  may  take  your  birds  safely  around  them,  rather  than  sweat 
in  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  getting  them  out  of  the  pit  that  you 
probably  have  dug. 

The  most  common  factor  in  causation  of  poultry  diseases  is  filth. 
This  may  be  impure  water,  foul  air  from  crowded  houses  or  contaminated 
air  from  dirty  droppings — boards  or  floors.  A  yard  that  is  bare  of  grass 
and  foul  with  the  accumulated  droppings  of  several  years  may  lead  to 
diseases  of  more  than  one  kind.  While  filth  alone  does  not  surely  lead 
to  disease,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  success  with  poultry  that  the 
bird's  life  is  passed  in  clean  quarters.  Catarrhs,  roup,  cholera,  and 
several  other  common  diseases  of  poultry,  are  intensified  if  they  are  not 
fully  caused  by  filthy  conditions. 

Another  cause  of  disease  is  improper  feeding.  Too  much  of  the 
corn  products,  to  the  exclusion  of  foods  that  w^ould  balance  up  the  com- 
plete ration,  unduly  fattens  the  bird,  and  is  often  followed  by  liver  disease 


302  The    Poultry    Book 

and  breakdown  when  the  bird  gets  to  be  over  twelve  months  of  age. 
Too  large  a  proportion  of  meat  tends  toward  rheumatic  condition,  and  is  a 
common  cause  of  winter  diarrhea  in  laying  stock.  Even  the  absence 
of  grit  is  sufficient  to  cause  indigestion,  and  I  have  seen  large  flocks  supposed 
to  be  dying  from  cholera,  when  careful  study  of  the  situation  made 
sure  that  the  one  thing  wrong  was  "no  grit  in  reach."  Many  soils 
are  deficient  in  grit ;  most  hen-yards  contain  only  old  grit  that  has  passed 
through  the  birds'  digestive  system  and  has  lost  all  grinding  properties. 
Oyster  shells  fill  a  place  in  the  birds'  needs,  but  they  do  not  do  the  work 
that  grit  will  do. 

Lice  and  mites  have  a  part  in  the  starting  of  disease.  Lice  irritate 
the  birds,  make  them  uneasy,  and  multiply  rapidly  when  disease  is  present. 
Red  mites  (spider  lice)  weaken  the  birds  by  sucking  the  blood,  thereby 
lowering  the  birds'  vitality  and  furnishing  better  breeding-ground  in  which 
the  disease  can  work. 

Dampness  is  not  conducive  to  heaitny  poultry.  Birds  may  keep 
well  under  wet  conditions,  but  it  is  a  factor  in  disease  that  should  be  kept 
in  mind.  A  leaky  roof,  a  damp  surface  soil,  a  foggy  valley,  have  led,  in 
my  knowledge  of  poultry  plants,  to  more  than  one  serious  epidemic  of 
disease.  Dampness  combined  with  any  of  the  filth  conditions  I  have 
mentioned  in  this  article  is  usually  followed  by  some  disease  of  the 
mucous  surfaces. 

Crowding  of  birds,  whether  in  the  laying  house  of  winter  or  in  the 
brooder  of  the  springtime,  is  dangerous.  The  overfull  brooder  soon  has 
the  right  number  of  chicks  through  the  death  of  many,  but  this  is  not  an 
economical  method  of  chicken-raising.  The  crowded  chicks  sweat,  chill, 
take  cold,  and  die  of  catarrhal  troubles  of  different  names.  The  overfull 
roosts  of  the  laying  house  seldom  pay.  The  birds  are  not  rested  by  the 
night's  roosting;  they  foul  the  air  of  the  house,  and  overload  the  drop- 
pings boards  with  a  product  which  contaminates  the  air  they  breathe. 

Extremes  of  temperature  are  hard  for  the  bird  to  bear,  and  tend 
to  produce  some  of  the  winter  ailments.  Better  have  a  house  cold  all 
the  time  than  one  hot  at  noon  and  near  the  zero  mark  at  midnight.  Our 
birds  are  well  dressed  for  cold,  but  have  no  way  of  adjusting  their  clothes 
to  the  hot  air  of  a  glass-front  house  at  noonday.  The  change  from  a 
temperature  of  eighty  degrees  at  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  on  a  sunny 
winter  day  to  zero  or  below  in  the  early  morning  hours  is  too  much  for 


The   Common    Diseases   of   Poultry  303 

most  birds  to  stand.  It  is  followed,  more  often  than  is  commonly  under- 
stood, by  the  lung  diseases,  such  as  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  Better 
have  the  cloth-covered  window-frames,  that  give  a  cold  house  both  day 
and  night,  than  a  building  with  a  front  largely  of  glass.  This  glass-lighted 
house  will  be  too  warm  by  day  and  too  cold  at  night,  unless  some  means 
are  provided  for  the  proper  ventilation  and  equalization  of  the  temperature. 
An  even  temperature  of  day  and  night  will  do  much  to  avoid  some  of  the 
common  diseases  of  winter. 

The  improper  use  of  food  and  condiments  will  help  toward  the  pro- 
duction of  disease,  if,  indeed,  they  do  not  directly  cause  poultry  ailments. 
A  ration  too  rich  in  starchy  food,  or  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
indigestible  elements,  too  much  meat  and  bone,  will  upset  the  digestion 
of  birds  that  are  off  a  free  range.  Birds  running  at  large  will  do  quite 
well  on  almost  any  kind  of  food,  but  the  yarded  stock  must  be  carefully 
fed  for  good  results.  The  overuse  of  spice  does  positive  harm,  and  it  had 
better  be  let  alone  altogether  than  used  carelessly. 

Some  Common  Diseases 

The  diseases  that  appear  in  the  flock  of  the  average  keeper  are  those 
connected  with  either  the  digestive  or  the  breathing  systems,  the  first 
as  the  result  of  faulty  feeding,  the  second  because  of  improper  housing. 

Indigestion  usually  shows  itself  in  the  loss  of  appetite  and  possibly 
some  diarrhea.  The  bird  is  "off  its  feed."  It  mopes  in  corners  of  house 
or  yard,  and  is  slow  in  all  its  motions.  Its  feathers  are  dull,  and  the 
comb  is  lighter  in  color  than  normal.  These  birds  need  a  light  diet  of 
simple  feeds— half  starved,  in  fact — and  a  grass  range  in  summer  and  a 
clover  diet  in  winter.  They  should  be  made  to  work  for  all  grain,  feeding 
it  in  deep  litter.  No  work,  no  food  !  If  the  birds  have  anything  wrong 
with  the  bowel  discharges,  whether  constipation  or  diarrhea,  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  castor  oil  in  mash  for  four  birds  will  help  get  rid  of  some  of  the 
irritating  material.  Other  medicine  than  this  I  should  not  advise.  A 
better  diet  and  good  care  will  cure  most  of  the  sick  birds. 

The  crop  may  get  inflamed  as  the  result  of  eating  some  irritant  poison 
and  the  organs  beyond  may  become  involved.  Paris  green  (and  other 
arsenical  poisons)  is  the  usual  poison  that  our  birds  have  access  to.  So 
much  of  it  is  now  used  for  spraying  orchards  and  other  crops  that  we 
have  become  careless  in  its  use.     Birds  suffering  from  inflamed  crops — 


304  The    Poultry    Book 

gastritis,  we  call  it — seem  to  be  in  pain  and  are  very  thirsty.  They  are 
seen  to  be  going  to  the  water-dish  every  few  minutes.  Give  these  birds 
clover  tea  in  which  arsenite  of  copper,  one  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  for 
each  quarter-pint,  has  been  dissolved,  and  let  this  be  their  only  liquid. 
The  diet  should  be  little  except  a  baked  mash  of  cornmeal  and  bran. 
The  ideal  diet  would  be  that  to  be  had  from  a  run  in  a  grass-covered  orchard. 

Diarrhea  and  cholera  are  two  diseases  that  have  similar  symptoms 
at  the  start.  Diarrhea  is  slightly  infectious,  while  cholera  is  one  of  the 
easiest  diseases  to  take  from  bird  to  bird  and  from  farm  to  farm. 
Diarrhea  is  usually  a  mild  disease.  Cholera  runs  a  rapid  course,  with 
high  fever.  Diarrhea  is  caused  by  wrong  feeding,  bad  hygienic  sur- 
roundings, or  lack  of  grit.  Cholera  is  due  to  a  disease  germ  that 
puts  in  its  work  in  healthy  birds  just  as  surely  as  in  debilitated  stock. 
Most  of  the  so-called  " cholera  cases"  of  the  poultry  papers  are  bad 
diarrheas.  Cholera  is  seldom  cured.  Many  of  these  so-called  cases 
recover — and  this  fact  is  against  the  diagnosis. 

The  well-fed  bird  on  farm  range  seldom  has  diarrhea.  It  is  the 
yarded  bird,  that  looks  to  the  owner  for  every  particle  of  food,  that  is 
reported  as  having  a  bowel  discharge.  Good  feeding,  as  put  forth  in 
the  prevention  of  disease  at  the  opening  of  this  article,  will  prevent  this 
trouble  and  cure  mild  cases.  Sulphocarbolate  of  zinc,  ten  grains  to 
each  pint  of  drinking  water,  will  do  good  service  in  overcoming  the 
irritation  in  the  intestines. 

Cholera  always  comes  unexpectedly,  runs  a  rapid  and  fatal  course,  and 
is  attended  by  intense  pain.  There  are  fever,  total  loss  of  appetite,  and  a 
bowel  discharge  that  is  more  watery  as  the  hours  go  by.  The  bowel 
discharge  is  fairly  normal  in  colour  at  first,  but  soon  changes  to  a  light 
color,  yellow  and  red  in  streaks,  that  may  be  all  red  in  twenty-four  hours. 
You  know  that  birds  that  were  well  two  days  before  are  decidedly  sick, 
and  you  decide  mighty  soon  that  the  chances  of  recovery  are  slim.  Cholera 
is  brought  from  a  neighbor's  flock  of  sick  birds  without  effort  on  the 
shoes  of  any  one  passing  from  place  to  place.  It  is  passed  from  pen  to 
pen,  from  house  to  house,  in  the  same  way.  There  is  no  good  cure  for 
cholera.  Treat  all  birds  as  you  would  for  a  bad  diarrhea,  and  if  many 
of  them  recover  you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  not  had  cholera.  All 
sick  birds  should  be  kept  by  themselves  and  away  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock.     This  is  true  of  any  sickness  that  may  visit  your  yards. 


The    Common    Diseases    of    Poultry  305 

Gapes. — This  is  the  one  parasitic  disease  that  is  hkely  to  be  at  all 
common  to  many  poultry  yards.  This  condition,  known  to  us  by  the 
peculiar  gaping  of  the  chick,  is  not  found  in  all  yards  in  sections  of  the 
country  where  it  is  common.  A  worm  makes  its  home  in  the  windpipe 
of  the  bird  a.nd  causes  the  irritation  of  the  mucous  lining.  In  turn  the 
bird  tries  to  get  rid  of  it  by  swallowing  or  coughing.  This  parasite  or  worm 
has  its  home  also  in  the  earthworm.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  earth- 
worm is,  therefore,  the  source  of  trouble.  But  the  gapeworm  must  be 
present  in  the  earthworm  or  no  gapes  results.  A  few  gapeworms  do 
little  injury,  but  when  the  number  is  large  the  bird  suffers  intensely. 
Hiindreds  of  thousands  of  chicks  die  of  gapes  in  some  of  the  sandy  regions 
of  the  eastern  United  States.  Chicks  seem  to  contract  this  disease  easily, 
while  adult  birds  on  the  same  place  are  free  from  it.  When  it  is  once 
introduced  into  a  yard  it  is  seldom  exterminated,  except  by  putting  new 
chicks  on  fresh  soil  in  new  yards. 

Prevention  is  everything  in  this  trouble.  It  is  hard  work  to  get  a 
wire  into  the  windpipe  of  a  small  chick,  yet  it  is  common  to  introduce 
a  wire  and  entangle  the  worms  in  a  twisted  horsehair  on  the  end  of  the 
wire.  In  this  manner  a  few  worms  are  dislodged  and  more  of  them  are 
coughed  up  later  by  the  chick.  Some  poultrymen  put  the  chicks  into  a 
box  covered  with  burlap ;  air-slaked  lime  is  then  dusted  through  the  cloth 
cover  and  is  breathed  by  the  chick.  This  irritates  the  bird  and  is  followed 
by  coughing,  which  gets  rid  of  some  of  the  gapeworms.  Whatever  method 
is  resorted  to,  one  cannot  remove  gapeworms  without  hurting  the  chicks. 

Catarrh  and  Roup. — The  diseases  of  the  breathing  apparatus  are 
catarrh,  roup,  canker,  diphtheria,  bronchitis,  and  pneumonia.  Of  these 
six,  catarrh  and  roup  are  the  most  common  to  all  sections  and  yards, 
and  present  the  same  symptoms  at  the  commencement  of  the  sickness. 
The  first  case  that  appears  cannot  be  named  for  a  few  days.  All  start 
with  a  slight  running  at  the  nose,  probably  sneezing,  and  some  watering 
at  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye.  Catarrh  seldom  presents  more  symptoms 
than  these.  On  the  other  hand,  roup  passes  from  these  symptoms  to 
those  of  mor5  severity.  The  disease  is  intense.  There  is  swelling  of  the 
sides  of  the  head,  the  breath  is  strong-smelling,  and  the  nostrils  are  tightly 
closed  with  thick  mucus.  If  you  have  a  flock  of  birds  that  present  the 
catarrhal  symptoms,  with  the  addition  of  that  rotten  odor  to  the  air  of  the 
roosting  house  in  the  early  morning,  you  may  know  you  have  roup  to  treat. 


3o6  The    Poultry    Book 

All  these  ailments  call  for  arsenite  of  antimony  in  the  early  stages. 
Catarrh  will  soon  clear  up  and  roup  be  made  more  mild.  The  dose  of 
this  medicine  is  small.  It  is  one  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  for  each  sick 
bird,  added  to  the  drinking  water  for  one  day's  use.  Prepare  fresh 
each  day.  If  several  cases  are  on  hand  it  is  well  to  add  a  half-dose 
to  the  drinking  water  of  each  well  bird. 

Roup  needs  more  energetic  treatment.  After  all  the  trials  of  new 
drugs,  I  have  come  back  to  the  old,  well-tried  remedy,  common  kerosene. 
Put  a  tablespoonful  of  kerosene  on  the  top  of  a  pailful  of  cold  water  and 
dip  the  head  of  each  bird  through  the  film  of  oil  into  the  water,  hold  for  an 
instant  and  then  withdraw.  Do  this  twice  a  day,  and  use  the  arsenite  of 
antimony  in  the  drinking  water  of  every  bird  on  the  place. 

All  sick  fowls  should  be  put  by  themselves,  lest  the  well  ones  contract 
the  disease.  All  drinking  vessels  should  be  scalded.  It  is  through  the 
vessels  and  water  that  the  disease  is  largely  spread.  When  the  disease 
is  eliminated,  clean  up  all  yards  and  pens,  lest  it  appear  another 
season  from  germs  that  stay  on  the  premises.  It  has  always  seemed 
to  me  that  catarrh  is  quite  likely  to  pass  into  roup  whenever  the 
pens  are  in  a  filthy  condition.  Catarrh,  filth,  and  wet  combined  lead 
to  the  roupy  outbreak. 

Diphtheria  and  canker  are  winter  ailments.  They  appear  generally 
in  fowls  that  have  been  exhibited  at  shows,  and  have  been  exposed  to  long 
express  trips,  or  have  roosted  in  a  cold  house  near  a  crack  in  the  wall. 
Canker  is  more  local  in  its  action  than  diphtheria.  A  patch  or  spot  in 
the  throat  or  mouth  is  a  prominent  symptom.  In  canker  this  spot  is 
yellow,  while  in  diphtheria  it  has  a  leaden  cast.  The  membrane  in  canker 
IS  thicker  than  in  diphtheria,  and  is  not  bound  so  tightly  to  the  mucous 
surface  underneath.  Both  diseases  respond  to  similar  treatment.  Possibly 
the  diseases  are  the  same.  Swabbing  the  patches  with  a  full-strength 
solution  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  twice  a  day,  and  the  internal  use  of  a 
one-grain  pill  of  calcium  sulphide  three  times  a  day,  will  give  best  results. 

Bronchitis  is  a  catarrhal  condition  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  bronchial 
tubes.  The  fowl  rattles  in  its  breathing,  is  dumpish  in  all  its  movements, 
and  quite  likely  shows  some  catarrh  of  the  nostrils.  Bronchitis  calls  for 
aconite.  One-drop  doses  of  the  tincture,  three  times  a  day,  with  the  birds 
kept  in  a  dry,  sunny  house  on  a  Hght  diet,  will  help  cure  these  late-fall 
and  early-winter  troubles. 


The   Common    Diseases   of   Poultry 


307 


Pneumonia  is  rarer  than  any  of  the  common  diseases.  Pneumonia  is 
so  fatal  that  it  is  seldom  recognised  by  the  average  poultryman.  The 
bird  has  some  difficulty  in  breathing.  The  number  of  breaths  per  minute 
is  large,  and  the  air  exhaled  is  hot  to  the  hand  held  near  the  mouth  and 
nostrils.  One's  ear  held  against  the  bird's  chest  may  reveal  a  sound 
similar  to  the  movement  of  thin  parchment  paper.  The  bird  has  no 
appetite,  is  feverish,  and  usually  very  constipated. 

Pnetimonia  is  fairly  common  in  the  winter.  It  is  the  single  cases 
appearing  often  that  make  this  one  of  the  dreaded  diseases  of  the  cold 
season.  Treatment  should  be  prompt.  The  man  who  is  with  his  fowls 
is  more  likely  to  recognise  this  disease  and  treat  it  early  than  is  the 
person  who  sees  his  flock  only  morning  and  night.  The  early  use  of  a 
tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  with  drop  doses  of  tincture  of  aconite  every 
two  hours,  will  usually  help  the  fowl.  While  this  disease  is  not  easily 
passed  from  fowl  to  fowl,  there  is  danger  enough  to  call  for  quarantine. 


"WHITE   LEGHORNS    RANGING    ON   FAIRVIEW   POULTRY   FARM 
(Owned  by  H.  J.  Blanchard,  New  York) 


PRINCIPAL  INSECTS  INFESTING  POULTRY 


A.   F.   Hunter,   Massachusetts 


LL  poultry-keepers  realize  the  very  great  importance  of 
keeping  their  flocks  free  from  parasites.  Sometimes  fowls 
become  so  badly  infested  with  parasites  that  they  are 
totally  incapacitated  for  work;  brooding  hens  frequently 
^^1  die  upon  their  nests;  newdy  hatched  chicks  are  lost  in 
very  great  numbers  as  the  result  of  carelessness  in  keeping  the  fowls 
and  their  nesting  and  roosting  places  free  from  lite  and  mites. 

There  are  several  distinct  species  of  Mallophaga,  or  Hce,  as  they  are 
popularly  known.  The  various  species  are  partial  to  particular  parts 
of  the  body,  as  the  rump,  under  the  wings,  between  the  wing  feathers, 
and  upon  the  head  and  neck.  They  subsist  upon  the  productions  of  the 
skin,  devour  fragments  of  the  feathers,  and  even  feed  upon  the  barbs  of 
the  feathers,  especially  attacking  those  of  the  saddle  and  hackle,  the 
latter  sometimes  showing  curiously  jagged  and  notched  edges  when  birds 
are  severely  infested.     Often  lice  are  present  in  great  numbers  on  fowls 


FIG.    I  FIG.    2  FIG.    3 

DIFFERENT     SPECIES     OF     BODY     LICE 

Fig.  I .  Lipeurus  ■variabilis:  primary  and  secondary  feathers  and  wings  in  chicks.  Fig.  2:  Mettopon  biseratum;  large  wandering 
hen  louse;  common  to  all  parts  of  the  bird.  Fig.  3:  Goniodes  eytts/ordii;  head  and  neck  feathers  of  fowls  and  chicks. 
Fig.  4:  Menopon  paUidiim:  common  pale  wandering  hen  louse. 


suffering  from  diphtheritic  roup  and  gapes.  By  their  debilitating  effects 
the  constitution  of  the  fowls  becomes  impaired  and  rendered  more  sus- 
ceptible to  any  infectious  disease.      Darkness    and    filth    are    especially 


Z'^9 


310  The    Poultry    Book 

favorable  to  the  development  of  lice  and  mites.  They  thrive  best  in 
dark,  damp,  badly  ventilated  and  dirty  runs  and  houses. 

Cleanliness  is  the  first  step  toward  prevention,  and  the  most  powerful 
aid  in  the  extermination  of  the  pests  when  once  established.  If  facilities 
for  dust-bathing  are  furnished,  and  the  quarters  kept  clean  and  well  venti- 
lated, there  will  be  little  difficulty  with  lice,  as  the  fowls  will  keep  them- 
selves pretty  well  freed  from  them.  The  quarters  should  be  thoroughly 
whitewashed  twice  a  year,  preferably  spring  and  fall.  The  floors  (if  of 
wood),  walls,  nests,  perches,  etc.,  should  be  well  washed  with  a  whitewash 
sufficiently  liquid  to  flow  freely  and  run  into  every  crevice.  A  little 
carbolic  acid  solution  or  kerosene  oil  added  to  the  whitewash  will  make  it 
still  more  effective  and  cleansing.  The  addition  of  a  little  soft  soap  (or 
potash  lye)  will  make  the  solution  more  destructive  to  the  parasites.  The 
addition  of  a  handful  of  sulphur  and  lime  mixed  in  the  road  dust  provided 
for  the  dust-bath  makes  the  latter  more  effective. 

Dusting  the  sitting  hens  with  powdered  pyrethrum,  known  also  as 
Persian  insect  powder,  or  bubach,  is  an  excellent  remedy.  All  dusting 
remedies,  while  efficacious,  cannot  reach  the  eggs,  commonly  called  nits, 
which  in  a  few  days  hatch  out  another  lot  of  lice.  Therefore,  sitting  hens 
should  be  dusted  several  times  at  intervals  of  about  eight  days.  Usually 
three  applications  will  suffice.  If  the  dusting  is  thoroughly  done  the 
chicks  hatched  by  these  hens  will  be  practically  free  from  lice  and  should 
be  kept  from  infected  birds. 

The  Chicken  Mite 

The  chicken  mite  is  scientifically  called  Dermanyssns  galUncc  Redi. 
It  is  commonly  known  as  "red  mite,"  or  "red  spider  louse."  Unlike 
the  lice,  it  does  not  live  in  the  feathers  and  upon  the  bodies  of  fowls, 
but  inhabits  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  roosts,  nests,  walls,  etc.,  coming 
out  at  night  to  prey  upon  the  birds  upon  the  roosts  or  attacking 
them  while  upon  the  nests.  Instead  of  feeding  upon  the  body 
excretions,  feathers,  etc.,  of  the  fowl,  as  do  the  lice,  the  food  of  mites 
is  blood.  It  is  only  when  engorged  with  blood  that  they  are  red.  Their 
natural  colour  is  a  light  gray,  with  tiny  dark  spots  showing  through 
the  skin.  In  many  respects  they  are  worse  than  lice,  and  poultrym.en 
should  do  everything  in  their  power  to  destroy  them  if  they  find  a 
lodgment  in  the  houses. 


Principal   Insects    Infesting    Poultry 


311 


In  a  recent  bulletin  (No.  69)  issued  by  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  the  following  interesting  and  practical  facts  are  given:  "The 
mites  are  of  peculiar  and  stealthy  habits  of  life,  rather  unlike  that  which 
one  naturally  expects  from  a  parasite.  Indeed,  they  are  only  semiparasitic, 
and,  as  a  rule,  remain  upon  the  fowl  only  long  enough  to  secure  a  meal. 
They  are  very  active  in  their  movements,  and  seem  to  be  ever  on  the 
lookout  for  a  victim.  On  account  of  their  vigorous  and  vicious  habits 
they  may  be  styled  the  wolves  of  the  insect  parasites  of  fowls.     The 


f:g.    I  FIG.    2 

FORMS     OF    THE     CHICKEN     MITE 
Young  chicken  mite,  lower  view.     Fig-.  2:  Adult  cliicken  mite,  upper  view.     Both  g-reatly  magnified 


mites  hide  in  crevices  and  under  objects  in  the  henhouse  during  the  day- 
time, while  the  chickens  are  outside,  and  lie  in  wait  for  their  return.  They 
lay  their  eggs  and  the  young  are  hatched  in  these  hiding  places.  A  barrel 
affords  an  excellent  hiding  and  breeding  place,  as  the  mites  lodge  between 
the  staves  and  imder  the  hoops.  In  the  nests  they  are  to  be  found  under 
the  straw  or  other  nesting  material.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  a  place 
which  shows  only  a  few  mites  on  the  surface  may  contain  vast  numbers 
in  the  crevices  or  under  objects.  Often  they  become  so  plentiful  that 
they  overflow  the  hiding  places  and  appear  in  hordes  upon  the  exposed 
surfaces. 


312  The    Poultry    Book 

A  Reliable  Remedy 

"The  most  effective  exterminator  found  was  kerosene  emulsion,* 
made  as  follows:  Take  one-half  pound  of  hard  soap,  shave  it  into 
a  gallon  of  soft  water  and  put  it  on  the  fire  and  bring  it  to  a  boil.  By  this 
time  the  soap  will  have  dissolved.  Then  remove  the  soap  solution  from 
the  fire  and  stir  into  it  at  once,  while  hot,  two  gallons  of  kerosene.  This 
makes  a  thick,  creamy  emulsion,  which  is  made  read}^  for  use  by  diluting 
with  ten  volumes  of  soft  w^ater  and  stirring  well.  It  can  be  utilized  as  a 
spray,   dip  or  wash. 

"It  is  necessary  to  use  soft  water,  for  hard  water  decomposes  the 
soap  and  destroys  its  emulsifying  power.  We  used  white  laundry  soap, 
but  any  good  hard  soap  will  do. 

"  ]\Iake  up  as  much  of  the  stock  emulsion  as  it  is  thought  will  be 
needed.  This  can  be  kept  in  a  suitable  vessel  and  a  portion  taken  out 
and  diluted  as  needed.  If  the  bucket  or  holder  attached  to  the  spray- 
pump  holds  five  gallons,  one-half  gallon  of  the  stock  emulsion  should  be 
put  into  the  bucket  or  holder  and  four  and  one-half  gallons  of  soft 
water  added  and  the  whole  well  stirred.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  sprayed 
on  the  places  occupied  by  the  mites.  A  beginning  should  be  made  at  a 
particular  place  and  the  whole  habitation  of  the  mites  sprayed  in  a  regular 
order,  of  which  account  should  be  taken  so  that  the  same  order  may  be 
followed  in  subsequent  sprayings.  The  spray  should  be  directed  with 
special  care  into  all  crevices,  holes,  joints,  or  other  hiding  and  breeding 
places  of  the  mites.  The  first  spray  of  kerosene  emulsion  v/ill  kill  within 
five  minutes  all  of  the  mites  and  eggs  with  which  it  comes  into  contact, 
but  many  mites  will  be  left  in  the  hiding  places  unaffected  by  the  spray. 
Hence  the  spraying  should  be  repeated  as  soon  as  the  first  spraying  is 
completed.  Even  this  will  not  kill  all  of  the  mites,  hence  a  third  spraying 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  second  is  completed.  At  each  spraying 
the  beginning  should  be  made  at  the  same  place  and  the  same  order  followed 

*  There  is  now  upon  the  market  a  combination  spray-pump  for  mechanically  mixing 
oil  and  water.  By  putting  the  kerosene  in  one  tank  and  the  water  in  another,  any  per- 
centage of  the  two  combined  can  be  obtained  by  simply  setting  a  gauge  and  pumping  out 
the  mixture.  This  apparatus,  simple,  cheap,  and  effective,  does  away  with  the  somewhat 
troublesome  method  of  making  kerosene  emulsion  by  hand.  Every  well-established 
poultry  plant  should  have  either  a  knapsack  or  hand  combination  oil-and-water  sprayer. 
The  same  apparatus  can  also  be  used  for  whitewashing  by  substituting  a  coarser  nozzle. — ■ 
EDiroR. 


Principal   Insects   Infesting    Poultry  313 

as  in  the  first.  These  three  sprayings,  done  in  one  day  and  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, will  destroy  nearly  all  of  the  mites,  but,  as  my  researches  have 
shown,  many  eggs  are  left  in  places  untouched  by  the  spray.  If  mites 
are  seen  crawling  about  the  building  the  next  day,  it  should  be  sprayed 
again. 

"One  might  ordinarily  suppose  that  he  had  now  exterminated  the 
mites ;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  for  in  about  three  days  a  crop  of  young 
mites  will  be  found  hatched  from  the  eggs  which  escaped  the  first  spraying. 
If  these  should  be  allowed  to  go  undisturbed  it  would  not  be  long  until 
the  building  would  be  as  badly  infested  as  at  the  beginning.  Therefore 
the  spraying  should  be  repeated  once  every  three  or  four  days,  spraying 
two  or  three  times  on  each  occasion,  for  about  two  weeks.  The  spray 
should  be  applied  to  every  part  of  the  building  that  is  likely  to  contain 
the  mites.  In  a  two-story  building  they  will  crawl  up  a  post  and  find 
lodgment  upon  the  second  floor,  even  if  chickens  do  not  go  there. 

"The  procedure  described  will,  with  very  little  doubt,  be  effective  in 
ridding  a  place  of  mites,  but  we  would  advise  that  a  constant  watch  be 
kept,  and  the  spraying  repeated  when  mites  are  seen  at  any  subsequent 
time.  Extermination  of  the  mites*  may  be  hastened  by  dusting  the 
fowls  with  pyrethrum  powder  after  they  have  gone  to  roost  the  evening 
before  the  spraying.  The  powder  will  drive  the  mites  from  the  birds,  and 
as  a  result  few,  if  any,  will  be  carried  out  upon  their  bodies  the  next  day." 

*  Mites  are  not  easily  destroj^ed  by  the  use  of  insect  powders.  In  fact,  these  creatures 
are  not  insects  at  all,  but  belong  to  a  different  group.  They  are  allied  with  the  spiders, 
and,  unlike  the  true  insects,  such  as  the  lice,  have  a  peculiar  breathing  apparatus  character- 
istic of  their  class.  The  various  insect  powders  prove  valuable  in  certain  cases  by  closing 
up  the  breathing  organs  or  spiracles,  situated  along  either  side  of  an  insect's  body,  when 
dusted  upon  them.  But  if  dusted  over  mites  or  spiders  it  would  not  necessarily  destroy 
them,  even  though  it  made  them  uncomfortable  for  a  short  time  and  forced  them  from 
the  body  of  the  fowl. — Editor. 


Q      ^ 

3    I 


^*%..: 


THE    FORKED-TAIL    JUNGLE-FOWL.  COMB    ANU    WATTLE    HAVE    CHANGEABLE 

COLORS 
Owned  by  Homer  Davenport 


THE  JUNGLE-FOWL 

HE  Jungle-cock  [Galliis  bankiva]  is  about  one-third  the  size 
of  our  domesticated  races,  measuring  from  point  of 
beak  to  the  extremity  of  flattened  tail  about  two  feet 
four  inches,  and  nearly  fifteen  inches  in  height  from  the 
level  of  the  feet  to  the  top  of  the  head,  not  including 
crest  on  indented  comb.  The  wattles  resemble  those  of  the  domestic  cock, 
the  deaf  ear  in  some  being  red  and  in  others  a  light  greenish-blue, 
though  they  are  larger  in  some  breeds  of  domestic  fowl.  The  female  is 
smaller  than  the  male,  with  scarcely  any  comib  or  wattles,  but  the  throat  is 
covered  with  feathers  forming  a  remarkable  distinction  from  the  domestic 
hen,  the  throat  of  which  is  usually  nearly  naked.  The  females  do  not  differ 
in  color  among  themselves  in  plumage,  like  those  of  the  tame  varieties. 
The  cry  of  the  Jungle-fowl  is  in  some  measure  different  from  that  of  our 
domestic  species,  but  there  is  much  resemblance  in  their  habits.  Captain 
Skinner,  in  his  "  Excursions  in  India,"  says:  "  In  some  parts  of  the  forest 
we  saw  several  Jungle-fowl ;  they  have  exactly  the  same  habits  as  domestic 
poultry.     The  cock  struts  at  the  head  of  his  hens  and  keeps  a  strict  watch 

315 


3i6 


The    Poultry   Book 


over  their  safety.  Whenever  disturbed  by  us,  he  flew  to  the  highest 
branch  of  some  tree  beyond  our  reach  and  crowed  with  all  his  might, 
while  his  dames  ran  into  holes  and  corners  to  escape ;  they  are  so  cunning 


INDIAN    JUNGLE-FOWL 


that   we   found   it   impossible   to    get  within  shot  of  them,  with  all  the 
caution  we  could  use." 

The  Shecarries,  or  low-caste,  in  India,  catch  Jungle-fowl  by  the  fol- 
lowing method:  "Two  or  three  men  go  together  and  proceed  in  this 
manner:  A  line  thirty  or  forty  yards  long  is  fastened  to  the  ground,  with 
wooden  pegs  at  each  extremity,  and  is  then  elevated  by  props  to  the  height 
of  about  eighteen  inches.  To  this  prop  nooses  of  horsehair  are  fastened 
about  two  feet  apart.     When  the  birds  attempt  to  pass  under  the  line 


The   Jungle-fowl 


317 


riiotografk  by  A.  R.  Dui;more. 
GRAY    JUNGLE-FOWL —WILDEST    AXD    HANDSOMEST   OF    THE   SPECIES 
OF   JUNGLE-FOWL 
Owned  by  Homer  Davenport 

they  are  caught  in  the  noose  by  their  necks.  Sometimes  a  similar  Hne 
is  fastened  to  the  ground  and  left  lying  there  with  all  the  nooses  spread, 
and  as  the  birds  pass  over  them  they  are  caught  by  the  legs;  these  lines 
are  never  spread  where  there  is  much  jungle.  When  the  lines  are  ready, 
the  men  go  a  considerable  distance  and  beat  the  bushes,  thus  driving 
the  game  toward  them."  This  method  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  used 
by  many  of  the  savage  tribes  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.     It  is  also  put 


photograph  by  A.  R.  Dugrnu 
THE    RED    JUNGLE-FOWL   (GALLUS  FERRUGINEUS  OR    BANKIVUS),  THE 
PROTOTYPE    OF    ALL    BREEDS    OF    DOMESTIC    CHICKENS 
Owned  by  Homer  Davenport 


3i8  The    Poultry   Book 

into  practice  for  catching  pheasants,  etc.,  by  poachers  in  England.  The 
Mussulman  natives  of  Hindustan  are  in  a  degree  fond  of  cock-fighting. 
The  Hindus,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  tolerate  the  existence  of  poultry; 
a  Hindu  would  sooner  forfeit  his  life  than  wear  a  fowl's  feather.  In  the 
Bay  of  Amphila,  in  Abyssinia,  Donakei,  also  in  Adaiel  and  Sanauli,  the 
inhabitants  entertain  a  prejudice  perhaps  against  the  common  fowl,  the 
flesh  of  which  they  hold  in  abhorrence ;  this  may  tend  to  the  idea  of  these 
tribes  having  sprung  from  an  Egyptian  origin. 

A  fine  specimen  of  the  Galliis  bankiva  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Harrison 
was  brought  from  the  northern  circars  of  India ;  whether  this  is  the  original 
stock  from  whence  all  our  domestic  varieties  have  sprung  I  leave  others  to 
determine ;  personally,  I  do  not  incline  to  that  opinion.  There  is  a  reference 
in  "Dampier's  Voyages"  to  a  small  species  seen  at  Condor;  and  at  the 
same  place  (in  "Cook's  Last  Voyage,")  a  "wild  hen,  of  splendid  color,  but 
less  than  ours  in  Europe,  "  is  described  as  having  been  shot. 


ROMAN    COCK-FIGHT 
From  a  painting  on  a  vase  in  the  Gregorian  Museum,  Rome 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GAME-COCKS  * 


'Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate."  — Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 

|HE  existence  of  the  Game-cock  is  almost  prehistorical. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  earher  records  of  China.  Cock- 
fighting  is  commended,  with  other  amusements,  in  the 
codes  of  Manu  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  Era.  Dempster  states  the  Game-cock  was 
indigenous  in  Persia,  and  conveyed  thence  to  other  countries.  Athenaeus, 
indeed,  quotes  from  a  work  of  ]\Ienodolus  some  hnes  b}^  which  this 
assertion  is  confirmed;  and  Aristophanes  in  two  places  calls  the 
domestic  cock  a  Persian  bird.  It  is  proved  by  more  modern  accounts  that 
this  species  of  fowl  is  at  present  found  wild  in  the  East  Indies  and  many 
neighboring  countries.  Sonnerat  found  them  in  Hmdustan;  and  they 
were  seen  by  Cook  and  Dampier  on  Pulo  Condor  and  many  islands  of  the 
South  Sea.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Gemelli  Careri,  the  Game- 
fowl  was  indigenous  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  Morolla  states  that  it  was 
to  be  found  wild  in  the  kingdom  of  Congo ;  and  it  is  asserted  by  Neineggo 
that  it  was  to  be  met  with  in  Georgia  in  a  wild  state  as  late  as  1797.  The 
account,  therefore,  of  the  Greeks  that  they  obtained  domestic  fowls 
from  Persia  may  be  admitted,  but  as  in  cock-fights  one  Persian  overcame 
another,  how  could  they  convey  the  idea  of  victory  of  the  Greek  over  the 
Persian  ?  The  Jungle-fowl  is  the  accepted  progenitor  of  the  Game -fowls. 
That  cock-fighting  was  a  favorite  pastime  long  ago  is  proved  by  the 
frequent  mention  of  it  by  various  authors.  Pliny  says  it  was  exhibited 
annually  at  Pergamus  in  the  same  manner  as  the  combats  of  gladiators. 

*This  part  has  been  read  by  the  following  experts  on  Games:  George  S.  Barnes,  of 
Michigan,  and  John  Glasgow  and  John  Filkin,  both  of  New  Jersey.  It  was  finally  revised 
and  partly  rewritten  by  the  American  editor. 

319 


320 


The  Poultry  Book 


According  to  Petronius,  a  boy  was  promised  a  fighting  cock.     From  this 
it  appears  that  even  boys  kept  fighting  cocks  for  this  pastime.     Cock- 


HIMERA    COINS 

ch  enlarged  to  show  form  of  birds 


fights  are  dehneated  on  vases  found  at  Pompeii,  on  ancient  sculpture  in 
Rome,  and  other  places,  ^sdinus  reproaches  Timaichus  for  spending 
the  entire  day  in  gaming  and  cock-fighting.  Plato  complains  that  not 
only  boys,  but  "grown-up"  persons,  instead  of  laboring,  had  birds  for 
fighting,  and  employed  their  whole  time  in  idle  amusements. 

Coins  of  Persia,  Himera  and  Afghanistan  have  their  effigy  of  cocks. 
Cock-fights  were  represented  also  by  the  Greeks  on  coins,  as  we  are  told 
by  Pollux;  and  this  seems  to  prove  that  these  people  were  as  fond  of  the 
sport  as  their  neighbors  of  Pergamus.  Mr.  Pegge  had  engravings  made 
of  two  gems  in  the  collection  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  on  which  is  seen 

a  cock  in  the  humble  attitude  of  defeat, 
with  his  head  hanging  down,  and  another 
in  the  attitude  of  victory,  with  an  ear  of 
corn  in  his  mouth  as  the  object  of  contest. 
On  the  other  stone  are  two  cocks  fighting, 
while  a  mouse  carries  off  the  ear  of  com 
for  which  they  are  contending.  Two  cocks  fighting  are  represented  on 
a  lamp  found  in  Herculaneum. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks  321 

The  Rhodian  fowls  were  celebrated  fighters,  as  were  those  of  Medea, 
Chalcis,  and  Tanagra ;  the  last  were  said  to  be  large,  powerful  birds  of 
great  courage.  Hieroglyphically  (Baily's  Diet.,  1736),  a  cock  signifies 
a  noble  disposition  of  mind,  there  being  no  bird  of  a  more  generous  or 
undaunted  courage  at  the  sight  of  imminent  danger.  "While  the  cock," 
says  another,  "is  the  emblem  of  strife,  of  quarrels,  of  haughtiness,  and  of 
victory,  because  he  rather  chooses  to  die  than  yield,  therefore  he  is  called 
a  bird  of  Mars." 

"  He  is  likewise  an  emblem  of  jealousy  and  vigilancy." 

"The  cock  crows  when  he  is  conqueror,  and  thus  gives  notice  of  his 
conquest." 

"Cock-fighting  appeared  on  the  coins  of  Dardania,  and  under  the 
presidency  of  love.  The  battles  were  often  fought  in  the  presence  of  the 
god  Terminus  (Hermes  among  the  Greeks),  and  the  palms  destined  to  the 
conqueror  were  placed  upon  a  pedestal." — Gentlemen's  Magazine. 

"Upon  a  coin  of  Athens  we  see  a  cock  crowned  with  palm." — Ency- 
clopedia des  Antiq. 

"Polyarchus  gave  public  funeral  and  raised  monuments  to  cocks,  on 
which  were  placed  epitaphs  in  praise  of  the  birds." — .-Elian,  Vai,  Hist., 

vni.  4. 

"The  sport  passed  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans,  and  Caracalla 
and  Geta  were  great  cock-fighters." 

"  It  is  said  that  the  gafile,  or  modem  metal  spur  attached  to  the  legs 
of  the  cock  before  being  put  down  to  do  battle,  is  a  modern  invention. 
This  is  not  so,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Synod,  and  was  some- 
times made  of  brass." — Lyes  Diet.  Sax.,  v.  Geaflas. 

There  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  the  Game-cock  was  held  in 
such  high  estimation  by  the  Romans  as  to  become  almost  a  deity.  They 
were  not  infrequently  buried  with  some  degree  of  honor,  as  is  partially 
proved  by  a  discovery  of  a  Roman  urn  at  Lewes  in  18 14  by  Doctor  Gideon 
Mantell,  when  digging  in  his  garden  near  the  castle.  An  account  and 
description  of  the  find  are  given  at  some  length  in  "Horsfield's  History  of 
Lewes." 

Markham,  describing  a  Game  hen,  says:  "If  she  have  weapons  she 
is  the  better."  Mr.  Brent  speaks  of  spurred  Game  hens  in  the  Journal 
of  Horticulture;  and  that  excellent  authority,  John  Harris,  informs  me  that 
he  has  somewhere  read  that  the  Ancients  possessed  spurred  hens.     From 


322  The    Poultry    Book 

the  foregoing  it  may  be  seen  that  it  is  possible,  though  not  very 
likely,  that  some  of  the  bones  here  figured  are  those  of  hens  rather 
than  cocks. 

The  old  English  Game-cock  has  held  its  own  against  all  comers. 
Bright  and  beautiful  he  stands  to-day,  as  he  stood  with  eager,  bold,  dilated 
eye,  full  of  defiant  gaze — a  monarch  bird,  clad  in  lustrous  feathery  garments 
of  the  brightest  sheen — when,  unflinching  and  undaunted,  he  faced  his 
foe,  while  old  Roman  warriors  made  the  ring  in  which  he  fought  on  English 
soil.  Though  they  beheld  with  w^onderment  his  high  prowess  and  daring 
deeds,  not  even  then  was  he  more  cherished  and  better  cared  for  than 
now.  On  the  grassy  mead  he  leads  forth  his  hens  to  meet  the  rising  sun, 
and  with  voice  clear,  loud,  and  shrill  he  proclaims  " 'Tis  day." 

The  universal  diffusion  of  the  bird  is  also  surprising.  j\Ir.  Lesson 
asks  if  it  is  not  remarkable  to  find  the  domestic  hen,  differing  in  nothing 
from  that  of  other  countries,  in  all  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea  and  among 
people  with  whom  Europeans  have  certainly  never  communicated.  Cocks 
and  hens,  he  tells  us,  were  very  common  at  Qualan,  for  example,  though 
the  natives  were  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  they  were  good  to  eat.  They 
may  have  obtained  themt  from  some  other  nation  with  whom  the\'  had 
held  communication. 

Take  Cornwall,  in  England,  as  an  instance.  It  is  said  that  the 
poultry  bred  and  grown  there,  more  particularly  Game-fowl,  were  all  of 
a  white-legged  breed,  and  that  until  of  late  years  such  a  thing  as  a  yellow- 
legged  bird  was  not  to  be  seen.  Another  curious  fact  is  that  the  hens 
were  mostly  "  spurred  "  like  the  cocks,  as  are  many  of  the  five-toed  hens  of 
Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  farm  fowls  to  this  day.  Those  in  Cornwall,  called 
"the  Persian  bird,"  may  possibly  have  been  brought  by  the  Phenicians, 
and  perhaps  bartered  for  tin  and  other  metals  from  the  mines.  However 
this  may  be,  there  are  plenty  of  the  white-legged  breed  still  to  be  found 
in  Cornwall,  though,  as  John  Harris,  of  Liskeard,  informed  Mr.  Weir, 
now  that  the  yellow-legged  fowls  have  been  imported  breeders  are  not  so 
particular,  but  at  one  time  they  would  not  have  been  tolerated. 

That  the  Greeks  used  artificial  spurs,  like  the  English  at  present,  is 
denied  by  Pegge,  though  the  contrary  seems  to  be  proved  by  a  passage 
of  Aristophanes.  They  were  said  to  have  used  a  cap  on  the  spurs  called  a 
telum.*      As  the  English  are  supposed  to  have  procured  the  best  fighting 

*  See  drawing  of  the  silver  spur  discovered  in  Cornwall. 


Ancient   and   Modern   Game-cocks 


323 


cocks   from 
other  countries, 
and  sometimes 
from  Germany 
through   Ham- 
burg,       the 
Greeks   in  hke 
manner    ob- 
tained   foreign 
Game-cocks  for 
the  same   pur- 
pose, the  most 
celebrated 
breeds    being 
mentioned    by 
Columella , 
VIII.  2 ;  Pliny, 
X.  21  jGeofron, 
XVI.     3.     30. 
Varro  mentions 
.  the  birds  most 
sought  after  in 
Greece,    but 
adds      that 
though     they 
might  have 
been    good  for 
fighting   they 
were  not  fit  for 
breeding,    but 
gives       no 
reasons    for 
this    latter 
statement. 
Had  the  breed- 
ing   of    Game- 
cocks been  an 


COCKS    BONES    FOUND    IN    A    ROMAN    URN    AT    LEWES,    BY 
DR.    GIDEON    MANTELL,    IN     1814 


324 


The    Poultry    Book 


■^ 

:>\^^-^  ^ 


*^"'^^  -^  >>  \- 


Frotn  a  dfa^ving  by  Harrison  Weir,  after  a  picture  by  II'.  Jfard.  R.A, 
OLD    WHITE    GAME 
The  old  Cholmondely  white  cock.  The  Ghost.     Winner  of  many  mains.     He  was  twenty  years  old  when  the  picture 
was  painted,  and  still  mated  to  hens 

employment,  he  would  have  spoken  of  it  in  a  different  manner.  Columella 
also  ridicules  the  breeding  of  these  cocks  as  a  Grecian  custom,  and  prefers 
the  native  race  to  all  others.  Eustathius  remarks  that  the  Romans 
preferred  quails  to  Game-cocks.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Roman 
Emperor  put  one  of  his  subjects  to  death  for  killing  a  quail  that  had 
been  victorious  in  combat. 

Since  the  time  of  the  Romans  in  England  the  earliest  mention  of  cock- 
fighting  is  that  by  William  Fitz-Stephens,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry 


Ancient   and    Modern    Game-cocks  325 

II.,  and  died  in  1191 ;  this  reference  is  also  quoted  by  Stow  in  his  "  History 
of  London."  Cock-fighting  was  put  down  as  unlawful  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  and  again  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1569,  although 
this  king  built  a  cockpit  in  Whitehall.  It  was  again  a  popular  sport  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth ;  and  though  Roger  Ascham  wrote  against  it,*  he  is  said 
to  have  loved  it  at  last.  James  I.  is  said  to  have  been  so  entertained  at 
least  twice  a  week ;  and  his  son.  Prince  Henry,  had  a  stud  of  his  own,  there 
being  an  entry  in  his  household  expenditure  to  that  effect.  In  the  town 
archives  of  Lincoln  there  is  on  record  that  during  the  visit  of  James  I.  to 
the  town,  "at  the  Sign  of  the  George,  161 7,  on  Wednesday,  he  made 
merry  at  a  cock-fight."  It  was  forbidden  again  by  Act  of  Parliament 
during  the  time  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  though,  judging  from  the  copy  of  the 
act  or  proclamation,  it  was  not  suppressed  on  account  of  any  cruelty, 
but  as  a  gathering  together  of  disorderly  persons. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  it  was  again  revived,  and  was  a  very 
favorite  sport  of  the  "Merry  Monarch";  so  much  so,  it  is  stated,  that  on 
more  than  one  occasion  at  Newmarket  the  horse-racing  was  postponed  for 
some  hours  until  the  mains  of  the  cock-fighting  had  been  fought  out. 

Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  invented,  or  rather  brought  into  notice,  the 
Red  Pile  cocks.  But  they  most  likely  existed  long  before,  as  they  are 
mentioned  in  Gervase  Markham's  book,  which  was  published  many  years 
previous  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  From  the  time  of  the  Restoration 
until  the  act  passed  about  1834  for  its  suppression  the  sport  had  not  been 
interfered  with. 

In  Beckmann's  "History  of  Inventions"  it  is  stated  that  "cock- 
fighting  in  France  was  forbidden  by  Order  in  Council,  A.  D.  1260,  on  account 
of  some  mischief  to  which  it  had  given  rise  "  Though  at  the  present 
time,  I  believe,  there  is  a  law  against  it  in  that  country,  it  is  still  carried 
on,  as,  also,  it  is  in  Spain. 

Whatever  may  be  or  has  been  said  for  or  against  cock-fighting,  it 
is  certain  that  to  it  we  owe — at  least  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely — 
the  preservation  of  a  most  extraordinary  breed  of  fowls,  peculiar  and 
remarkable  in  every  way,  besides  being  of  great  value  from  a  culinary 
point  of  view. 

Writing  of  a  certain  breed  or  strain  of  Game-fowl  some  time  ago,  Mr. 

*  Mr.  Weir  says:  "  I  have  never  seen  a  copy  of  this  book,  nor  can  I  learn  anything 
about  it,  further  than  one  old  English  'cocker'  saying   that  he  had  seen  a  copy." 


326  The  Poultry  Book 

Weir  urged  its  claims  to  public  and  general  recognition  in  the  following 
words :  "  Fine  in  form,  graceful  in  carriage,  beautiful  in  color,  small  in  bone, 
with  white  shanks,  feet,  and  toe  nails,  plenty  of  white  fie::h  of  imsurpassable 
quality,  skin  thin  and  white,  fat  white,  with  an  absence  of  offal  to  a  remark- 
able degree,  good  layers  of  delicately  colored  delicious  eggs;  while  both 
the  young  and  old  birds  seek  their  living  far  and  wide."  And  to  this  may 
be  added  a  courage  strong,  high,  and  enduring.  Such  were,  and  I  trust 
are,  "the  Derby  Reds."  Yet  these  are  but  one  type,  and  are  proof  to  us 
of  the  present  day  of  the  care,  consideration,  thought  and  judgment  in  the 
selection  for  breeding  purposes  that  ever  actuated  our  forefathers  to 
produce  the  highest  excellence  attainable  in  "cocks  of  the  Game." 

The  very  fact  of  their  training  and  being  fought  demonstrates  without 
doubt  the  survival  of  the  strongest,  the  most  hardy,  healthy,  best  formed, 
and,  in  short,  to  use  Darwin's  words,  "the  survival  of  the  fittest."  Indeed, 
had  cock-fighting  as  a  sport  never  existed,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
such  birds  as  we  now  write  about  would  be  in  evidence.  Thus  our  poultry- 
yards  would  not  have  been  graced,  as  they  now  are,  with  a  bird  as  useful  to 
man  as  it  is  preeminently  beautiful. 

What  other  bird  has  the  stately  walk,  the  symmetrical  form,  the  bold 
alertness,  the  daring,  haughty  look,  the  graceful  pose  and  carriage  ?  "  Where 
is  there  one  so  agile  ?  W^here  another  so  rich  in  colors  ? "  or  of  more  befitting 
texture  of  "plume "  ?  Erect,  bold  as  a  chief  from  battle  with  glory  crowned 
a  natural  ruler — a  bird  without  a  peer  !  And  this  because  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  and  century  to  century  the  best,  strongest,  healthiest, 
truest,  and  of  the  purest  breed  have  been  kept,  while  the  weak  and  ill- 
formed  or  ill-conditioned  were  set  aside.  "  I  have  found,"  says  Mr.  Weir, 
"  that  tuft  as  often  means  a  fleshy  comb  as  feathers." 

For  a  clear  and  accurate  enumeration  of  the  points  of  excellence 
the  Game-cock  of  the  present  century  should  possess,  we  are  much  indebted 
to  the  well-known  veteran,  John  Harris,  of  Liskeard,  Cornwall,  whose 
knowledge  is  indeed  great  of  the  breed  "that  has  braved  a  thousand 
years  the  battle  and  the  breeze."  We  quote  his  description  of  the  points 
of  the  English  Game-cock:  "The  beak  big,  boxing,*  crooked,  pointed, 
and  hawklike;  eye  bold,  fiery,  large,  fearless;  head  small  and  tapering; 
throat  and  face  very  loose  and  flexible ;  neck  large-boned,  round  and  strong; 
back  short,  broad  at  the  shouklers,  and  tapering  to  the  tail ;  breast  broad, 

*  The  upper  mandible  shutting  close  over  the  lower. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks 


327 


full  and  prominent,  with  well-developed  pectoral  muscles  to  give  the  neces- 
sary action,  power,  and  force  to  the  wings.  Breadth  and  fulness  of  breast 
are  most  essential  to  Game-fowls,  whether  regarded  from  a  sporting  or  edible 
pomt  of  view.     In  a  table  fowl  it  is  indispensable."     Mr.  Weir's  "  Derby 


BLACK-BREASTED    LIGHT    RED    PRIZE    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME 
BreJ  and  owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


Reds,"  after  coming  to  the  yard  to  feed,  nearly  always  used  to  take  wing 
and  fly  across  a  two-acre  field  into  an  adjoining  wood,  thus  proving  their 
strength  of  flight. 

Mr.  Harris  maintains  that  "the  wings  should  be  large  and  long,  with 
the  quills  strong  and  of  a  powerful  description,  so  as  to  impart  additional 
force  in  action ;  tail  large,  up  and  spread.     The  up-spread  tail  is  indicative 


328 


The    Poultry   Book 


of  spirit  and  of  high  courage."     And  yet  he  says  "we  frequently  read  of 
tail  too  high.     Whoever  saw  a  Game-cock's  tail  '  too  high '  ?     A  low,  droop- 
ing  tail   is   a  sign  of 
weakness  and  consti- 
tutional debility." 

There  is  a  grow- 
ing propensity  among 
some  of  those  acting 
as  judges  at  shows  of 
calling  all  fowls 
carrying  their  tails 
high,  as  in  many 
breeds  they  should, 
"squirrel-tailed." 
Nothing,  in  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Weir, 
in  many  cases  shows 
more  want  of  charac- 
ter than  ' '  a  drooping 
tail " ;  we  are  glad  to 
find  so  ardent  an  old 
fancier  as  Mr.  Harris 
agree  with  Mr.  Weir. 
But  to  resume  Mr.  Harris's  description  of  the  Game-fowl:  "  Belly  small  and 
tight ;  thighs  very  short,  round,  and  muscular,  not '  straddling,'  but  the  thigh 
crooked  or  bent,  following  the  line  of  the  cone-round  breast ;  this  would  make 
the  cock  as  he  stands  close-heeled.  No  one  with  knowledge  of  the  true  Game 
shape  would  approve  of  a  cock  standing  with  his  legs  wide  apart.*  Legs 
strong,  clean-boned,  and  not  at  all  gummy  like  some  other  fowls,  or  stiffly 
upright,  having  small  spurs  set  very  low  down,  and  having  a  good  bend  or 
angle  at  the  hock;  color  black  for  black  reds,  whitey  yellow,  or  carp  for 
other  black-breasted  reds."  This  bend  of  the  hock — or,  more  correctly, 
the  junction  of  the  metatarsal  bone  with  the  tibia — may  aptly  be  com- 
pared to  the  bent  hocks  and  muscular  thighs  of  the  hare  or  kangaroo,  as 


BLACK-BREASTED    SILVER   DUCKWING 


*  How  true  this  is  the  practical  Cocker  knows,  but  of  which  so  many  modem  writers 
are  lamentably  ignorant,  yet,  assuming  a  knowledge  they  do  not  possess,  they  too  often 
advance  a  fault  as  a  point  of  excellence. 


Ancient    and    Modern    Game-cocks  329 

furnishing  them  with  such  wonderful  propelhng  power.  In  cocks  of  this 
perfect  conformation  there  is  nothing  wasted  in  these  individual  bones, 
which  are  constructed  so  as  to  enable  all  to  move  with  velocity  exactly 
commensurate  to  their  distances  from  the  center  of  action.  "  Feet  fiat,  thin, 
with  long  taper  nails ;  in  hand  evenly  balanced,  v/hat  'cockers'  term  'clever' ; 
firm,  but  corkey  and  light-fieshed,  mellow  and  warm,  with  strong  con- 
-traction  of  the  legs  and  wings  to  the  body." 

A  finer  description  of  a  Game-cock  could  not  well  be  made ;  every 
touch  shows  a  master  hand. 

Mr.  Sketchley,  in  The  Cocker,  puts  the  most  serious  defects  as — 
Flat-sided  and  thin  generally,     Thin  thighs, 

deep  keeled,  Crooked     or    indented 

Short  legged,  breasts. 

Short,  thin  neck,  Duck-  and   short-footed, 

Imperfect  eye,  Unhealthful, 

which  may  easily  be  seen  when  "up"  for  the  purpose  of  handHng. 
Mr.  Sketchley  further  says:  "Cocks  that  do  not  bear  coneHke  shapes 
are  for  the  most  part  straddling  in  their  walk,  and  as  they  walk  they  fly ; 
whereas  in  the  cone  shape  the  legs  are  more  inverted  and  narrow."  These 
remarks  do  not  agree  with  those  laid  down  as  "the  points"  of  beauty  to 
be  attained  in  the  modern  Game,  though  manifestly  better. 

Mr.  Robert  Howlet  said  on  the  title  page  of  his  book  (1709),  "That 
the  sport  is  both  ancient  and  honorable."  He  divides  the  breed  into 
two  classes,  the  ' '  Game-cock ' '  and  ' '  match  cock. ' '  We  do  not  find  any 
writer  before  his  time  so  observant  or  so  careful  in  distinguishing  the 
varieties  of  size  and  form. 

"Having  furnished  yourself  with  a  breed  that  is  stout  and  sure,  see 
then  to  the  shape,  and  know  that  here  you  ought  to  be  very  nice  and 
circumspect,  strictly  examining  every  part;  and  if  by  severest  scrutiny 
you  find  the  cock  to  be  foul-grown  or  disproportioned,  reject  him  as  a  bird 
unfit  to  breed  from,  and  consequently  unworthy  of  your  care  or  least 
regard,  notwithstanding  the  stock  be  ever  so  good  from  which  he  is  derived." 

After  describing  the  shape,  which  is  almost  identical  with  that  given 
by  Gervase  Markham  at  a  much  earlier  date,  he  proceeds:  "As  to  the 
color  of  your  cock,  that  is  best  which  you  fancy  most — black,  white,  red, 
dun,  gray,  or  piled,  or  any  other  color  whatever;  for,  though  Captain 
Markham  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  color  of  the  cocks,  there  is  nothing 


330  The    Poultry    Book 

in  it,  for  the  world  affords  no  better  birds  for  the  Game  than  many  c  f  your 
duns  and  white  prove. 

"  '  The  scarlet-colored  cock  my  Lord  likes  best, 

The  next  to  him  the  gray  with  the  thresle  (thrush's)*  breast, 

This  knight  is  for  the  pile,  or  else  the  black, 

A  third  cries,  "  No  cock  like  dun  with  yellow  back," 

The  milk-white  cock  with  golden  legs  and  bill, 

Or  else  the  cuckoo,  choose  vou  which  vou  will. 


But  this  all  mere  fancy  is,  and  no  more. 
The  color's  nothing,  as  I  said  before.' 

"And,  therefore,  without  taking  any  notice  of  color,  I  shall  only 
hold  you  close  to  the  aforementioned  shape,  as  being  'the  all  and  only 
part  necessary  to  make  up  a  complete  cock.'"  Yet  in  many  cases  the 
old  Game  men  prided  themselves  on  the  colors  and  uniformity  of  their 
studs ;  still,  with  such  a  full  and  excellent  description  as  just  given,  no 
breeder  of  "the  Game"  can  be  at  a  loss  as  to  which  is  the  old  English 
Game,  and  having  the  high  qualities  of  shape,  if  not  possibly  color. 

Howlet  continues:  "Having  obtained  a  cock  that  is  hard,  sharp- 
heeled,  and  handsome  shape,  it  remains  then  for  you  to  pitch  upon  a  fit 
size  for  your  purpose,  otherwise  you  will  still  be  at  a  loss.  Now,  though 
there  are  as  many  different  sizes  as  there  are  several  cocks"  (which 
difference  in  size  is  often  produced  by  the  early  feeding,  as  Mr.  Richard 
Stamp  has  fully  demonstrated),  "yet  are  these  birds  reduced  to  two  sizes 
only,  and  distinguished  by  these  two  general  terms — that  is  to  say,  the 
great  Game-cock  or  "Shake -bag,"  and  the  little  match  cock  or  "battle 
cock,"  which  last  is  now  called  "the  old  English  Game." 

The  Giant  or  Herculean  was  called  the  Shake -bag  by  the  English 
and  Dutch ;  by  the  Indians  it  was  known  as  Mag  Chantille  Champone,  and 
Mag-Gal  by  the  Scotch.  Baden  assures  us  the  word  signifies  great  or 
mighty.  Doctor  Wilde,  writing  in  the  seventeenth  century,  gives  the 
reason  why  they  are  called  shake -bags:  "Here  in  England,"  says  he, 
"they  are  so  termed  from  a  Scottish  custom,  and  that  'the  Dutchmen 
have,  who  are  great  admirers  of  large  cocks,  and  these  being  fought  c  t  a 
venture,'  the  bags  in  which  the  birds  are  being  taken  by  the  bottom,  t  ley 
shake  the  cock  out  at  the  mouth  upon  the  pit,  from  which  custom  they  ire 
called  'shake-bags.'  "     In  some  parts,  as  in  Kent  and  Sussex,  where  a  bag 

*  A  throstle  (local^ . 


Ancient   and    Modern  Game-cocks  331 

is  often  called  a  "poke,"  they  are  called  "turn  pokes,"  and  "turn-out"  in 
other  places. 

These  large  Shake -bags  were  not  only  well  known  but  plentiful  previous 
to  the  year  1709,  at  which  date  Mr.  Howlet's  book  appeared,  though 
Mr.  John  Laurence  (Mowbray),  writing  more  than  one  hundred  years  later 
(181 5),  speaks  of  them  as  rare  and  only  kept  by  the  Duke  of  Leeds.  He 
says:  "Shake-bags,  formerly  the  largest  variety,  has  in  all  probabihty 
been   entirely   worn   out   for   some   years.     It  was   called   the    Duke   of 


BL;  CK-BREASTEI)    GINGER    RED,    EIGHT   MONTHS     COCKEREL 
Owned  by  Harrison  Weir 


332  The    Poultry    Book 

Leeds's  breed,  His  Grace,  more  than  fifty  years  since,  being  a  great  amateur 
breeder  of  them  "  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  whether  His  Grace  first  raised  the 
variety,  or  whether  it  arose  merely  from  improving  the  size  of  the  common 
Game  or  the  "dunghill  kind,"  or  from  any  foreign  cross.  The  former 
is  the  most  probable  conjecture,  on  account  of  the  whiteness  and  fineness 
of  the  flesh  in  the  genuine  Shake-bag.  "The  only  one  I  ever  possessed 
was  a  red,  in  1784,  weighing  about  ten  pounds."  At  that  period  the 
real  Duke  of  Leeds's  breed  had  become  very  scarce,  which  induced 
dealers  to  put  Shake -bag  cocks  to  Malay  hens,  by  that  means  keeping 
up  the  original  standard  size,  but  entirely  ruining  the  color  and  deli- 
cate flavor  of  the  flesh. 

Air.  Harris  remembers  the  Duke  of  Leeds's  breed,  as  it  was  called,  all 
of  which  he  says  had  much  of  the  unmistakable  Alalay  stamp  about  them ; 
but,  according  to  the"  statements  of  old  men,  especially  Smytherum,  who 
fed  for  Lord  Rodney,  and  Bidgood,  feeder  to  Admiral  Duckworth,  the 
original  breed  of  "the  Leeds"  Shake -bags  had  pure  white  legs,  w4th  the 
flesh  and  skin  as  white  and  delicate  as  any  Game-fowl,  though  some  had 
carp  legs  and  colored  skin,  which  showed  evident  traces  of  Eastern  blood. 

We  have  given  these  descriptions  at  length,  for  many  writers  of  poultry 
books  of  the  present  day  quote  Mowbray,  often  without  any  knowledge 
of  the  word  or  meaning  of  the  name  "shake-bag,"  some  authors  even 
spelling  it  "shakbacks." 

Mr.  Weir  remembers  that  very  large  Game-fowls  were  kept  by  some 
of  the  Kent  and  Sussex  farmers  and  landholders,  mostly,  if  not  all.  with 
white  shanks,  though  a  few  were  dark  or  deep  yellow,  according  to  plume. 
The  duckwing  Game-cock  in  Herring's  picture  of  "Feeding  the  Horse" 
was  painted  from  a  very  heavy  bird  he  knew  well.  It  was  fully  nine  pounds 
or  more  in  weight.  Yet  possibly  the  original  very  large  birds  might  have 
come  from  the  Low  Countries,  for  they  are  still  plentiful  not  only  on  the 
Continent,  but  also  in  England,  Scotland  and  India.  There  is  an  opinion 
existing  among  cockers,  from  the  mode  of  attack  and  general  demeanor 
in  the  pit,  that  they  have  much  of  the  Malay  blood  in  their  composition, 
as  previously  stated. 

Centuries  ago  the  lesser  Game-cock,  as  now,  was  preferred.  The 
little  cock,  as  is  well  known,  is  full  of  dash,  activity  and  courage,  while 
the  old  Shake-bag  was  slow  and  cruel.  All  this  tends  to  show  that  at 
least  some  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Shake-bag  were  Chittagongs  or  Malays. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks 


333 


This  is  but  the  usual  effect  in  breeding  for  size;  most,  if  not  all,  large 
fowls  are  longer  in  attaining  their  full  growth  or  in  "filling  out"  to  what 
will  be  their  more  permanent  bulk.  It  is  so  with  geese  and  ducks  of  the 
"improved"  varieties,  these  last  seldom  attaining  their  full  form  under 
the  second  year,  whereas  the  goose  of  three  years  is  not  as  big  as  it  will 
possibly  attain. 
We  are  disposed  to 
think  that  those  of 
the  Duke  of  Leeds 
were  only  the  ordi- 
nary farm  Game- 
fowl  bred  to  a  large 
size  by  ample  feed- 
ing and  selection. 
Others  are  of  the 
opinion  there  was 
much  of  the  Malay 
blood  infused  t  o 
obtain  the  larger 
growth.  Looking 
back  at  the  old 
prints  of  the  Malay, 
we  find  them 
delineated  as  large, 
upright  birds,  with 
by  no  means  small 
tails,  and  very 
different  to  the 
form  in  which  they 
are  now  bred. 
Even  in  India  there  are  varieties 
Malay  a  breed  or  a  family?" 


UNDUBBED 


5LACK-BREASTED    GINGER-RED    OLD    DERBY 

Bred  at  Weirleigh  by  Mr.  Weir 


which  causes  us  to  inquire   "Is  the 


Breeding  Game-Cocks 

Regarding  the  breeding  of  the  Game-cock,  Howlet  says :  ' '  First,  know 
that  the  cock  from  which  you  intend  to  breed  is  a  bird  well  descended, 
rightly  shaped;  he  must  be  healthful,  fresh,  and  full  of  feather." 


334 


The    Poultry    Book 


Referring  to  the  Game  hen,  the  same  author  says:  "She  must  be 
either  the  mother  or  sister  of  some  admirable  cocks  known  to  signahze 
their  valor  in  the  field  of  honor,  and  not  only  they,  but  their  progenitors. 
She  must  be  rightly  shaped,  healthful,  fresh,  and  full  of  feather;  her  age 
ought  to  be  different  from  that  of  the  cock ;  if  the  hen  is  old  then  the  cock 
must  be  young;  but  if  the  cock  is  old  the  hen  should  be  young." 

It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this 
was  written  in  the 
days  of  the  pit.  It 
will  be  observed 
that,  though  Howlet 
was  an  experienced 
and  thoughtful 
breeder,  his  mode 
differs  from  others. 
His  observations,  as 
well  as  those  of  a 
later  date,  have  been 
quoted  here  to  show 
what  care  and  ex- 
actitude in  all 
details  our  old 
Game-cock  masters 
endeavored  to  excel 
in  the  production  of 
the  most  healthful, 
strongest,  and  best 
fowls.  To  this  ex- 
cellence the  breeder 
of  the  present  day 
has  scarcely  pro- 
gressed. It  may  be 
doubted  whether 
we  have  better  or 
even  as  good  fowls  as  the  breeders  of  more  than  a  century  ago. 

The  Sportsman,  1797-98,  says:     "  Be  certain  the  hens  from  which  you 


GAME 
After  a  drawing  by  Marshall— 1790 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks  335 

intend  to  breed  are  sound.  Use  the  same  methods  as  those  for  the  cock. 
Be  assured  that  there  has  not  been  a  taint  in  their  race  for  many  generations. 
The  breeding  place  should  be  at  least  half  a  mile  from  where  dunghill 
fowls  are  kept.  In  February,  put  the  cock  and  hens  together.  If  a  cock 
disagrees  with  a  hen,  take  her  up.  Breeders  differ  much  as  to  the  food 
given  to  chickens  the  first  ten  or  twelve  days ;  they  grow  best  when  fed 
with  bread  and  egg  mixed,  as  for  young  canary  birds.  If  the  weather 
is  wet  and  you  are  obliged  to  keep  them  in  a  room,  give  them  bones  of  raw 
mutton  or  beef  to  pick  once  a  day.  When  a  fortnight  old,  begin  feedmg 
barley,  wheat  and  oats,  and  see  that  they  have  gravel." 

Early  feeding  with  barley  or  hard  food  of  any  kind  is,  in  Mr.  Weir's 
opinion,  wrong.  Soft  food  of  various  kinds  is  the  proper  feed,  he  thinks, 
until  the  chicks  have  passed  their  first  feathering  at  least,  and  even  then 
it  is  best  to  be  sparing  of  hard  grain  unless  well  crushed  or  broken. 

"See  that  the  perches  are  round,  and  not  thicker  than  the  fowls  can 
grasp.  When  they  are  flat  or  large,  as  some  advise,  it  tends  to  distort 
the  feet,  the  outer  toe  often  twisting.  If  they  can  grip  the  perch,  the  foot 
is  seldom  deformed.  Put  the  perches  high  to  make  them  fly,  but  not  too 
high.  Have  the  floor  soft."  Mr.  Weir  says  he  uses  pine  sawdust  at  least 
six  inches  thick  on  the  floors  of  his  houses. 

As  to  the  perches,  the  old  breeders  had  somewhat  different  opinions, 
but  mostly  the  approved  perch  was  Jow,  seldom  more  than  two  feet  from 
the  ground.  High  perches  and  hard  soil  for  the  chickens  or  fowls  often 
produces  lameness,  crooked  breasts,  and  other  deformities. 

Speaking  of  inbreeding,  Howlet  says:  "By  no  means  let  them  be 
too  near  of  kin.  Out  of  brother  and  sister,  or  father  and  daughter,  seldom 
or  never  good  cocks  are  bred.  They  either  prove  thin,  weak  and  ill-shaped, 
or  else  dull  and  false-heeled — especially  if  they  are  great  cocks,  for  one  must 
be  much  more  cautious  in  breeding  them  than  the  little  match  cock." 
Howlet 's  opinion,  however,  does  not  agree  with  the  views  of  Mr.  Sketchley 
and  Richard  Stamp.  The  latter,  one  of  the  very  best  breeders  of  his  day, 
advises  breeding  "in-kin"  thus :  "In  all  cases  the  hen  bird  should  be  the 
oldest,  mother  and  son,  aunt  and  nephew,  half-brother  and  sister,  cousins 
and  half-cousms,  grandmother  and  grandson,  and  the  more  crosses  in  that 
way  the  better."  John  Harris,  in  his  description  of  the  method  of  breeding 
adopted  by  the  most  celebrated  cockers,  states  that  "the  breeding-walks 
generally    contain    six    hens,   full-blooded    sisters,  with    one    stag    cock, 


336 


The    Poultry   Book 


so  that  the  produce  would  be  full-blooded  'brothers  or  sisters.'"  Mr. 
Stamp  further  says:  "I  have  many  a  time  thus  bred  seven  to  ten 
crosses,  and  by  so  doing  the  cross  appears  like  fresh  blood  in  the  strain. 
I  have  bred  from  a  hen  fourteen  years  of  age  and  got  good  feather,  size 
and  weight,  appearing  just  like  the  former  type.     I  bred  from  a  hen  ten 


BLACK-BREASTED    RED   GAME    COCK,    ISO? 
From  Ree's  "  Cyclopedia  " 


four  mains  and 


In 


years    of   age,   and   got  some  good   birds,   one  wmnmg 
another  seven." 

Like  most  men  of  his  type,  Mr.  Stamp  was  full  of  observation 
one  of  his  notes  he  says:  "I  have  reared  birds  to  as  far  as  eight  or  nine 
pounds  in  weight  by  following  them  up  with  nourishing  food,"  but 
he  adds  that  they  did  not  improve  by  that  means,  showing  that  selection 
and  matching  was  the  surest  method.     He  further  states:    "  By  doing  so 


Ancient    and   Modern  Game-cocks  337 

I  got  weight,  but  no  more  strength,  and  lost  a  good  deal  of  action.  When 
I  reared  a  bird  on  natural  food  up  to  six  pounds,  good  size  to  weight, 
and  good  type,  I  could  match  him  against  any  bird  any  size  in  the 
world."  This  from  such  an  authority  carries  conviction,  and  is  worthy 
of  all  consideration.  He  also  notes  that  strong-boned  birds  generally 
grew  thicker  and  longer  spurs.  We  suppose  by  this  he  means  close- 
textured  bone,  and  by  no  means  "spongy."  If  so,  this  would  most 
likely  be  the  case,  the  spurs  themselves  would  be  of  a  finer  texture 
and  less  liable  to  get  broken  off.  It  will  likewise  be  seen  from  the 
above  that,  although  Mr.  Stamp  bred  closely  "in-and-in,"  he  not  only 
maintained  great  stamina  in  his  birds,  but  could  also  gain  size  as  well, 
when  he  wished  to  do  so,  adding  several  pounds  weight  simply  by  selection 
and  feeding ;  yet  we  are  told  that  crossing  out  is  absolutely  necessary  to  obtain 
size,  and  "  in-and-in ' '  breeding  reduces  it.  Failure  possibly  attends  those  who 
are  ignorant  of  methods,  whether  of  "  in-and-in ' '  breeding  or  of  crossing  out. 
But  as  doctors  differ,  so  does  "the  Fancy,"  even  on  the  question  of 
breeding  "in-and-in."  Mr.  Sketchley  says,  writing  in  1 814:  "To  promote 
the  means  of  keeping  these  fowls  in  their  wonted  health  and  valuable 
acquisitions,  if  you  are  in  possession  of  stags  and  pullets,  as  well  as  cocks 
and  hens,  select  the  blooming  of  both,  and  put  stags  to  the  two-year-old 
hens,  and  cocks  to  the  pullets,  and  you  may  for  years  continue-  in  the 
same  blood,  observing  to  put  them  invariably  together  in  the  above- 
recited  manner,  never  on  any  account  making  use  of  either  cock  or  hen 
after  their  being  two  years  old ;  for  by  adhering  rigidly  to  present  youth  to 
youth  you  can  scarcely  fail  of  success."  Here  is  a  decided  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  never  breeding  from  an  old  bird,  and  yet  both  show  equally 
good  results.  Mr.  Sketchley  deprecates  most  conclusively  the  breeding 
from  old  birds  over  two  years,  while  Mr.  Stamp  proves  the  contrary — 
that  when  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  certain  blood  it  may  be 
adopted  with  success.  The  former  speaks  of  several  sisters  running  with 
one  cock,  but  then  he  points  out  that  all  must  be  of  full  and  robust  health, 
and  watched  as  to  any  deterioration  in  this  respect,  and  the  cock  must 
have  and  retain — 

"  The  standard  ruddy  bloom  of  health, 
That  his  feathers  are  not  dry  or  loose, 
But  mellow  in  feel,  bright  and  firm; 
His  flesh  firm  and  compact ; 
His  legs  well  under  him,  and  his  crow  clear  and  sound." 


338  The  Poultry  Book 

Then  all  ought  to  go  well,  and  the  progeny  be  strong  and  hearty ;  but 
if  the  breed  fails,  though  bred  from  sisters  in  health  with  a  cock  in  good 
health,  simply  from  deterioration  in  some  way,  he  says  "  that  a  cross  away 
is  never  necessary,  but  frequently  robs  them  of  some  rare  qualifications 
they  had  formerly  enjoyed.  A  general  failure  wants  no  cross,  but  total 
eradication." 

However,  "  in-and-in  "  breeding  is  by  no  means  of  modern  date,  but  was 
practised  centuries  ago.  Judiciously  managed,  it  is  the  most  ready  method 
of  securing  any  particular  type.  As  Richard  Stamp  and  J\Ir.  Sketchle}^ 
.clearly  demonstrate,  "when  in  master  hands"  it  does  not  in  any  v/ay 
weaken  or  injure  the  constitutional  strength  of  the  birds  so  bred.  Our 
forefathers  knew  this,   and  it  also  appears  to  have  been  their  practice. 

This  mode  for  the  perpetuation  of  certain  qualities  was  continued  by 
the  later  cock  masters.  It  was  adopted  by  such  men  as  Doctor  Bellyse, 
who  was  considered  one  of  the  best  breeders  of  the  old  fighting  strain  of 
Game-cocks.  He  was  celebrated  far  and  wide  as  the  owner  of  some 
wonderful  piles. 

John  Harris  remarks:  "There  were  the  renowned  in-and-in  bred, 
mealy  grays  of  Hugo  Maynell's  and  Sir  Charles  Sedley's,  which  beat  every- 
thing that  could  be  pitted  against  them  in  their  day."  Particular  attention 
is  called  to  the  fact  of  these  strong  and  valorous  birds  being  bred  "in-and- 
in"  as  they  were,  yet  possessing  such  wonderful  vigor  and  constitution 
which  they  by  demonstration  clearly  showed  themselves  to  possess.  This 
goes  a  long  way  to  prove  an  assertion  Air.  Weir  often  made  and 
maintains,  that  the  mode  of  "in-and-in"  breeding,  if  properly  understood 
and  used  with  care  and  judgment,  is  one,  if  not  the  very  best,  method  of 
perfecting  any  desired  quality,  form  or  color,  retaining  it  without  deteriora- 
tion of  the  constitution.  Mr.  Harris  says  in  his  remarks:  "Until  crossed 
out  after  the  decease  of  their  masters,  so  powerful  were  they  that  even 
the  '  killing  smocks '  (white)  and  '  light  pyles '  of  the  Warburtons,  Raylences, 
Molyneuxs,  and  Egertons,  whose  heels  were  wont  to  bring  down  death 
suddenly,  could  not  live  a  battle  through  with  them";  and  only  when 
those  black-legged  warriors  of  Maynell  and  Sedley  were  opposed  to  each 
other  did  either  find  their  equal.  By  this  same  system  of  breeding  Maynell 
produced  the  most  perfect  pack  of  foxhoimds  the  world  had  ever  seen.  We 
again  wish  to  impress  this  method  for  attaining  perfection  thoroughly  on 
the  notice  of  all  breeders  of  stock,  also  bearing  in  mind  the  fact  which  should 


BLACK   HENNY    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME 
Owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


Ancient   and   Modern   Game-cocks 


341 


HEAD    OF    OLD    ExNGLISH    GAME    COCK    WHICH 
WON   A    WELSH    MAIN 


never  be  lost  sight  of — it  requires  a  good  eye  for  properties,  a  keen  and 

experienced  judgment,  and  a  more  than  ordinary  development  of  natural 

talent  and  aptitude  for  matching  only  those  birds  that  are  likely  to  produce 

in  excess  those  properties  which  are 

lacking   in   those  to  which  they  are 

mated;  thus   it   is  that  more  points 

are  gained  tending  toward  perfection, 

and  with  more  certainty  of    a  good 

and  even  result.     We  have  purposely 

quoted  their  prowess  to  show  that 

they  neither  wanted  vigor  nor  courage. 

Mr.  Harris   informs   me  that  Stamp 

bred    for    seventy    years   with    two 

crosses,  Bellyse  more  than  fifty  years, 

only   going   back  to  the  original  on 

two  or  three  occasions.     The  crosses 

in  the  Derbys  from  Lord   Germain, 

the  Whit  worth  "Doctor's,"  and  one 

or  two  others  were  the  only  ones  used  up  to  the  death  of  "the  old  Earl," 

from  the  time  when  Lord  Strange  first    made  them.     He  also  adds  that 

if  he  wished  for  first-rate  qualities,  "I  should  take  a  cock  from  a  strain 

I  had  sixty  years  ago,  although  I  have  had  such  strains  for  crossing  as 

Bourne's,     Weightman's,     Baily's,     Brough's,    Callicote's,    Daughberry's, 

Rendleson's,  and  many  others." 

Writing  some  years  ago,  John  Harris  says:  "I  have  just  seen  one, 
if  not  the  very  last,  of  the  pure-bred  Parkhouses  (Tassels)  on  a  brood 
walk,  where  he  has  got  fine  chickens  this  season,  although  he  is  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  years  old,  and  is  a  true  and  good  type  of  the  breed,  having 
a  long,  narrow  tassel."  Another  proof  of  stamina  in  a  breed  was  in  that 
of  Mr.  Morris's  well-known  "grays,"  one  of  which,  after  winning  in  eleven 
mains,  had  thirty-six  sons  fight  in  a  main  at  the  Royal  pit,  and  only  four 
of  them  were  beaten. 

At  the  present  day,  most  of  our  fowls  are  considered  old  and  past 
usefulness  when  about  four,  five  or  six  years  of  age,  and  this  with  all  the 
modem  methods  of  crossing  "out"  and  recrossing  "out."  We  have  pur- 
posely mentioned  the  birds  of  "the  pit"  as  showing  that  there  was  no 
loss  or  any  deficiency  of  courage  unless  they  were  crossed  out. 


342  The    Poultry    Book 

After  reading  Mr.  Darwin's  remarks  on  the  "in-and-in"  breeding  of 
poultry,  it  appears  that  he  was  by  no  means  sufficiently  supphed 
with  the  actual  facts  of  Game-cock  breeding,  nor  of  their  condition  after 
a  continuous  course  of  many  years  of  "close  interbreeding,"  with,  we  may 
almost  say,  scientific  selections;  but  in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  he  had  to, 
and  did,  rely  on  the  knowledge  of  others,  who  possibly  were  not  themselves 
sufficiently  well  informed,  or  rejected  much  that  did  not  assimilate  with 
their  views  on  interbreeding.  We  are  fully  aware  that  some  men  have 
such  preconceived  opinions  as  to  believe  in  no  proof,  nor  in  any  one  but 
themselves.  Of  course,  it  requires  much  judgment  and  attention  to  pedigree 
to  breed  "in-and-in"  with  success,  and  it  is  considered  almost  necessary  to 
have  walks  on  different  soils,  and,  if  possible,  wide  apart  or  even  in  different 
counties,  good  soil  and  environments — all  being  of  value,  each  in  their  degree. 

With  all  care  we  can  never  be  positively  certain  in  what  proportions 
the  desired  combination  may  be  brought  about ;  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  cross  breeding  fowls  appears  to  present  so  great  a  hazard  of 
injuring  pure  breeds  that  few  beyond  those  to  whom  the  test  of  experiment 
is  sufficient  to  interest  will  be  likely  to  take  shares  in  the  lottery. 

The  introduction  of  a  "pile"  Game-fowl  into  a  strain  of  black-breasted 
Reds  is  said  to  have  made  its  appearance  after  a  lapse  of  fifteen  years,  when, 
moreover,  for  many  generations  not  a  symptom  of  it  had  been  apparent. 
This  is  but  one  case ;  several  have  come  under  my  own  observation.  But 
further,  the  editor  remarks:  "All  we  contend  for,  as  in  other  crosses 
between  the  different  breeds  of  fowls,  amounts  to  this:  that  it  cannot  be 
said  that  such  produce  generally  will  exhibit  in  form,  feather,  or  properties 
any  very  near  approach  to  the  proportion  of  the  parents'  features  to  which 
their  origin  would  entitle  them." 

One  of  my  points  is  the  first  cross,  which  it  is  said  should  be  half  of 
each  parent,  shows  often  so  strong  evidence  of  the  one  that  the  other  part 
of  the  cross  is  scarcely  perceptible;  and  when  this  is  the  case  it  as  often 
again  shows  itself,  though  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  "bred  out." 

An  instance  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  old  Derby  Reds ;  these  were 
kept  intact  for  very  many  years  (it  is  said  a  century),  when,  about  ten 
or  fifteen  years  before  the  Earl's  death  (1835),  they  were  crossed  with 
the  "toady-breasted"  grays,  with  which  he  fought  many  battles  latterly, 
and  these  frequently  produced  wheaten  hens;  before  this  they  were 
unknown  in  the  stud. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks 


343 


Mr.  Sketchley  so  strongly  deprecates  a  slovenly  way  of  matching 
for  breeding  "incongruous  colorings"  with,  in  his  estimation,  most  perni- 
cious results.  He  says :  "A  regular,  well-chosen  system  to  breed  uniformly 
not  only  in  feather  but  in  each  character  respectively  is  the  best  mark 
and  criterion  of  an  experienced  breeder."  (That  is  so,  doubtless,  and 
any  one  that  decries  color  as  not  being  a  "part  and  parcel"  of  the  life 
and  constitution  of  a  bird  has,  I  think,  yet  something  to  learn  besides 
the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  "  livery.")  "When  a  main  exhibits  a  regular 
set  of  brothers  that  require  minute  discrimination  to  distinguish  one  from 
the  other,  it  meets  with  the  general  plaudits  of  the  surrounding  pit." 


GAME    DE     BRUGES     iSHAKI 


344 


The    Poultry    Book 


The  art  of  breeding  true  in  color,  in  plume,  shanks  and  feet  seems 
to  rest  with  very  few,  judging  from  what  poultry  shows  give  us  as  types. 
Take  the  Derby  Reds  as  an  example.  So  ignorant  are  the  breeders 
of  the  present  day  of  the  method  adopted  by  the  Earl  of  Derby  that 
these  fine  old  servitors  are  fast  losing  their  identity  as  "  reds  "  and  becoming 
mere  splashes  and  pieds,  these  sometimes  miscalled  spangle,  and  often 

even  with  discolored 
shanks  and  feet.  And 
in  the  richer,  brighter, 
light-colored  forms  the 
lamentable  falling  off 
in  the  last  quality  is 
most  grievously  observ- 
able  and  deeply 
regrettable.  This 
comes,  undoubtedly, 
from  the  want  of 
knowledge,  not  only 
of  how  to  match,  but 
only  too  often  from 
the  outside  remedy 
being  tried  in  the  way 
of  an  alliance  with 
some  other  breed  or 
strain,  the  Derby  "light 
reds"  having  been  got 
originally  from  piles 
(Smock-breasted  reds) 
and  the  old  black-breasted  black  reds,  and  so  bred  and  selected 
until  the  black  under-color  was  bred  out  and  a  white  substituted. 
This  white  "splashing,"  therefore,  is  merely  atavism  of  color,  and 
in  some  localities  disappears,  while  in  others  the  white  is  so  aggres- 
sively persistent  as  to  become  the  ruling  color;  but  one  curious 
fact,  noticeable  throughout,  is  that  although  it  may  be  said  the  color  is 
weakened,  yet  neither  the  strength,  health,  vigor  nor  courage  is  in  any 
way  impaired. 

And,  further,  it  has  been  stated  that  none  of  the  old  warrior  strain 


CAPTAIN    HORNBY  S    BLACK*BREASTED    LIGHT    RED 
DERBY    GAME-COCK 

From  an  old  pencil  drawini;.  1853 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks  345 

were  without  some  white;  this  may  be  the  case  generally,  but  not  with 
all.  Having  kept  the  breed  for  many  years,  it  was  seldom  Mr.  Weir 
could  breed  either  a  cockerel  or  pullet  whole  colored,  though  the  latter 
were  less  difficult  to  produce;  yet  sometimes  he  was  successful. 

Of  all  colors,  the  most  attractive  is  the  black-breasted,  dark,  blood- 
red,  with  pure  white  shanks,  feet  and  beak;  being  at  once  not  only  the 
most  beautiful,  but  also  the  most  useful  for  all  purposes,  the  yellow 
shanks  in  England  being  objected  to  for  table. 

In  some  cases  the  white  in  the  Derby  Reds  is  so  much  in  evidence 
as  to  make  it  a  white  bird,  somewhat  lightly  splashed  with  red,  purple 
and  black,  in  variegation  more  like  a  tulip  than  a  fowl.  Such  splashed 
birds  are  too  often  miscalled  spangles,  a  real  spangle  having  a  colored 
groimd,  each  feather  being  tipped  only  w4th  white.  There  are  red, 
brown,  yellow,  blue,  dun  and  black  spangles.  (A  spangle  is  foul  in  feather 
that  has  nearly  or  wholly  white  or  black  feathers  in  the  tail  or  wing  primaries 
and  secondaries ;  yet  such  are  erroneously  given  precedence  by  the  modern 
so-called  Game  judge  over  black-breasted  reds  pure  in  color,  and  so  with 
black-breasted,  silver  and  other  duckwings.) 

The  Cornish  light  reds  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Earl  of  Derby's  and 
Mr.  Taylor's  strain,  which  were  one  and  the  same  family.  Coath  kept 
these  birds  carefully  bred,  and  was  very  successful  for  upward  of  forty 
years,  until  he  crossed  them  to  gain  bone  with  those  of  more  sturdy  make, 
when  they  were  just  as  unsuccessful  in  the  pit  as  "they  proved  good 
before" — another  instance  of  the  value  of  "in-and-in"  breeding;  and  here 
is  one  more: 

The  Earl  of  Derby's  strain  had  been  bred  at  Knowsley  for  many  and 
many  a  long  year ;  some  aver  for  much  more  than  a  century.  They  were  a 
beautiful  strain,  though  a  few  of  the  old  fanciers  objected  to  their  dun  or  daw 
eyes.  Beesley  was  His  Lordship's  first  feeder;  on  his  decease.  Potter  took 
office,  followed  by  Potter,  junior.  For  a  great  number  of  years  His  Lord- 
ship's breeder  was  Roscoe ;  and  who  does  not  remember  the  son,  "Thomas," 
that  next  took  charge  of  the  Knowsley  stud?  And  "what  a  stud!" 
For  a  number  of  years  he  placed  out  more  than  three  thousand  chickens 
annually,  and  from  these  it  was  an  easy  matter  indeed  to  pick  out  many 
and  many  a  faultless  bird,  fine  in  color,  good  in  shape  and  constitution. 
Well  do  I  remember  the  grand,  the  noble  and  stately  appearance  of  these 
beautiful  "flame-black  and  purple"  colored  birds,  as   they  walked  and 


346  The   Poultry    Book 

crowed  among  their  hens  amid  the  bracken  of  the  old  deer  park,  with  a 
dauntless  mien  and  a  majestic  carriage,  well  poised  on  their  ivory,  stainless 
shanks,  their  jetty  breasts,  their  large,  full-feathered  flowing  tails,  some 
few  having  a  white  feather  or  two  or  a  half- white  sickle,  others  "without 
this  blemish"  of  color,  though  perhaps  "blanched  winged."  The  stag 
was  perfect  in  all  ways,  without  a  streak  of  white,  as  were  the  partridge- 
colored  hens. 

Those  most  preferred  in  bygone  times  were:  (i)  Black-breasted 
black  reds;  (2)  black-breasted  reds;  (3)  black-breasted  Birchen  duckwings; 
(4)  brown-breasted  Berry  Birchens;  (5)  piles  (these  really  should  be 
designated  "white-breasted  reds,"  or  yellows,  duns,  blacks  or  blues,  as 
the  capping  might  be) ;  (6)  black-breasted  silver  grays ;  (7)  white  or  smocks ; 
shaded-breasted  mealy  grays;  (8)  black-breasted  dark  grays;  (9)  ginger- 
breasted  reds;  (10)  black;  (11)  brass-backed  blacks;  (12)  spangles;  (13) 
smock  or  clear  whites ;  (14)  duns  and  blues.  Although  some  were  esteemed 
more  than  others  in  different  localities,  their  merits  were  pretty  generally 
admitted  in  the  order  named.  This  being  so,  then  it  would  seem  there 
was  something  in  color  after  all,  there  being  better  cocks  for  "the  pit" 
of  the  darker  colors  than  mostly  of  the  lighter;  and  it  appears  to  be  so 
thought  by  universal  consent,  although  "the  smocks"  in  their  times  have 
borne  themselves  m  a  true  and  knightly  way,  and  the  red-and-white  liveried 
piles  have  maintained  and  upheld  the  honor  of  royalty. 

After  the  black-breasted  black-reds  few  if  any  of  the  old  English  Game- 
cocks stood  so  well  in  the  opinion  of  the  many,  or  were  more  daring,  more 
full  of  life  and  vigor,  or  had  a  more  fearless,  haughty  carriage  than  the 
blacks,  the  very  blacks — "Satans"  or  "Demons."  Fine  upstanding 
birds,  somewhat  tall,  yet  strong,  and  big  in  girth,  fierce  in  look,  with  large, 
round,  defiant,  bright  black  eyes,  black  combs,  faces,  beaks,  shanks,  feet, 
and  toe  nails,  while  their  plumes  of  black  intensity,  with  sheen  of  crimson, 
purple,  blue  and  green,  as  they  moved  in  quick  or  deliberate  motion, 
caught  the  sun's  rays  and  flickered  and  flashed  in  varied  hues,  as  though 
the  very  color  lived.  Full-tailed  and  big- winged,  which  they  clapped, 
then  crowed,  stopped,  gazed  and  crowed,  they  were  of  the  Game-birds 
once  seen  never  to  be  forgotten ;  but  they  are  past,  and  other  colors  and 
forms  are  now  the  vogue;  and  so  with  the  azure-breasted  blues,  lovely  in 
color,  bright  and  beautiful,  and  their  congeners,  the  blue  duns,  with  their 
mellow -toned  and  softened,  tinted  feathering,  looking  bright  by  contrast. 


Ancient    and    Modern   Game-cocks 


347 


photograph  by  Harrison  Weir. 


OLD-ST\LE    GAM] 


Where  now  are  the  charming  yellow-breasted,  red-breasted  and  ginger- 
breasted  reds,  with  their  glowing,  fiery-flashing  colors,  the  robin -breasted, 
the  old  black-and-white  piles,  and  the  lovely  mealy  grays,  with  the  chestnut 
wing  bar — all  these  and  more  were  "the  liveries"  of  the  dukes,  lords  and 
squires  in  the  old  times  gone  before  us.  These  and  sttch  as  these  were  of 
the  highest  type  of  vigor,  health,  strength,  beauty  of  form  and  color  that 
art,  care  and  knowledge  could  possibly  achieve  as  was  maintained  and 
evinced  by  some  yards  having  this  remarkable  uniformity  in  all  respects. 
When  cocks  were  entered  for  the  pit  they  were  weighed  and  described 
most  carefully  in  every  way,  but  perhaps  it  is  not  generally  known  that 
at  some  of  the  more  northern  pits  they  were  also  named  on  the  ma'tch  bill, 
of  which,  being  interesting,  I  give  an  example: 

"Cock-match  bill,   to  be  fought  at  the  old   Galloway   Pit,   at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Easter  Meeting,  commencing  April  i,  1850." 

At  all  the  matches  the  birds  were  numbered  as  well  as  named,  and  it 
is  ctirious  to  note  the  odd  and  strange  names  given,  and  under  which  these 


348  The    Poultry    Book 

feathered  warriors  fought.  Here  are  a  few  which  may  some  day  prove 
to  be  historical :  "  Gay  Deceiver,"  "  Laplander,"  "  Blue  Bonnet,"  "  Steeple 
Chaser,"  "Lord  Hill,"  "Bob  ]\lust  Take  Care  of  Isabella,"  "Kill  Him,  So 
I  Will !"  "Trial  Is  the  Best  Proof,"  "  Billingham  Lass"  (this  seems  some- 
what wrong  for  a  male  bird),  "Tip,  the  Daisy,"  "Bella  Wants  Him  Back 
Again,"  "Paul  Jones,"  "Peep  o' Day  Boy"  (this  is  fairly  descriptive  of 
"the  early  bird"),  "  Plodge  the  Burn,"  "Horn  of  the  Chase,"  "He  Is- 
Waiting  in  the  Village,"  "  Robert  Is  a  Plucked  One."  "Jane's  My  Darling," 
"The  Bonny  Pit  Lad,"  "Free  Trade,"  "Proud  and  Saucy,"  "Teaser," 
"Fair  Play,"  "Jenny's  Fancy"  (this  is  entered  as  a  dun  pile),  "Little 
Devil"  (it  is  to  be  hoped  this  did  not  survive  the  combat),  "Hark  to 
Thunder,"  "  Hark  to  the  Lark"  (does  this  in  any  way  indicate  the  musical 
crow  of  this  entry?),  "Slashing  Harry,"  "The  Tout,"  "  Beny's  the  Best," 
"White  Stockings"  (perhaps  a  white-shanked  Derby  Red),  "Through  the 
Wood,  Laddie,"  "More  Whisky"  (this  is  suggestive  of  having  at  least 
some  spirit),  "Hairy  Leg,"  "More  Brandy,"  "Wanton  Willie,"  and 
a  large  number  of  others,  thus  illustrating  by  their  names  the  peculiar 
"whims  and  fancies"  of  their  owners.  After  reading  through  this 
old  cocking-bill,  and  the  number  of  birds  mentioned,  one  cannot 
repress  a  feeling  of  depression  and  extreme  sadness,  knowing  these 
encounters  were  a  matter  of  life  and  death,  and  they,  too,  in  all  their  pride 
of  youth  and  beauty,  with  apparently  more  life  than  the  body  could  well 
contain,  stately  in  step,  haughty  in  carriage,  and  beautiful  in  contour  and 
color.  Yet  how  many  of  all  these  lovely  birds  were  alive  at  the  end  of 
this  seven  days'  meeting,  where  it  was  no  doubt  the  lot  of  some  to  fight 
and  fight  again,  and  yet  again,  before  they  gained  the  oft -contested  right 
of  "going  home,"  and  there  to  end  their  days  as  brood  cocks  among  flowery 
meads  near  rippling  rills,  in  peaceful  walks,  proud  of  their  ever-prating, 
cackling  hens,  and  then  with  loud  voice  rousing  the  rested  world  to  begin 
anew  its  work  and  daily  life. 

Of  mains  and  Welsh  mains  nothing  need  be  said,  as  what  they  were, 
and  are,  is  so  well  known,  but  it  is  not  so  with  the  battle  royal,  which 
is  most  imperfectly  understood,  so  many  writers  of  fiction  designating  a 
furious  fight  between  two  as — "hereupon  'a  battle  royal'  at  once  ensued,'" 
which  in  no  way  gave  any  idea  or  represented  that  which  occurred  in  the 
days  of  "the  cockpit'-';  indeed,  even  then  it  had  long  been  in  disuse,  and 
was  only  resorted  to  when  a  few  birds  were  left  over,  and  time  was  pressing. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks 


349 


This  may  be  so,  but  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  such  exhibitions  at  the 
most  celebrated  pits  were  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 

The  battle  royal  was  for  a  time  a  favorite  mode  of  fighting  among 
cockers  of  the  lower  order,  who,  upon  the  old  maxim  of  "the  more  danger 
the  more  honor,"  became  practical  advocates  for  general  destruction  in 
the  following  way: 

"A  battle  royal  may  consist  of  any  number  of  cocks,  but  it  is  hardly 
ever  known  to  exceed  eight,  the  owner  of  each  having  made  good  his  entry 
by  paying  the  stake-money,  or  previously  contributed  his  share  of  the 
prize  or  purse  (sometimes  the  cocks  were  handicapped,  great  winners 
paying  more  entry  money,  and  untried  cocks  or  stags  somewhat  less). 
All  parties  being  ready,  the  battle  or  fight  for  the  prize  is  begun  by  turning 
out  into  the  pit  all  the  cocks  (that  are  to  do  themselves  honor)  at  one 
time ;  a  general  melee  commences  like  to  the  old  jousting  times,  when  every 
knight's  weapon  was  against  that  of  the  one  next  him,  and  every  one 
his  enemy."  The  scene  in  the  cockpit  can  better  be  imagined  than 
described.  "  Here,  there,  and  everywhere  birds  rose  and  fell,  the  last  often 
to  rise  no  more — carnage  at  once  revolting,  inhuman,  and  disastrous  to  all 
the  combatants  save  one,  and  generally  not  one  lived  till  the  pit  was  cleared. 
Often  the  gallant  conqueror  of  birds 
as  brave  and  strong  as  himself  had 
barely  time  to  scramble  on  to  the 
heap  of  slain  and  crow  his  last  crow 
of  defiance  ere  sinking  wounded 
unto  death"  —  or,  perhaps,  "A 
scuffling,  racing,  tearing,  crucial 
bandying  of  blows,  vigorously 
dealt,  a  restless  rushing  from  side 
to  side,  a  savagery  of  killing  without 
science  or  art  of  attack  or  defense, 
at  times  two  or  three  springing 
high  over  the  others,  alighting  again 
amid  the  battling  throng  with  deadly 
effect  as  they  buried  their  burnished 
weapons  into  the  throbbing  mass 
them.  Now  and  again  a  pause,  a 
blast 


From  a  dra-u.i>i!;  by  Han 
OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    HEN 


of    contentious    combatants    below 

shrill,  ringing  crow  like  a  trumpet 

and  the  living  dash  on  their  nearest  foe,  and  over  the  heaped-up 


350  The   Poultry   Book 

dead  or  dying  another  falls,  another,  and  yet  another.  Two  are  left, 
which,  though  bleeding  from  many  a  vein,  are  yet  undaunted;  they  meet, 
they  rise,  they  fall,  and,  as  they  lie,  strive  yet  to  rise  again  to  strike.  One 
is  up,  he  staggers,  falls  dead  on  a  heap,  an  manimate  mass.  There  is  a 
movement,  the  other  feebly  lifts  his  head,  struggles  to  rise,  and  falls!" 
Is  it  sport?  Is  there  any  sport  in  this  sort  of  thing,  this  "battle  royal"  ? 
Truly  the  last  survivor,  if  any,  wins — wins  what  ?  Credit,  renown,  lasting 
honors,  a  happy  life  to  the  end  of  his  days,  or  what?  All  this  slaughter, 
this  .  .  .  the  winner  wins  the  stake-money  for  his  owner.  "But," 
says  the  editor  of  the  Sporting  Dictionary,  writing  as  long  ago  as  1803, 
"this  species  of  sport  is  but  little  practised  now,  and  that  in  the  most 
distant'  and  remote  corners  of  the  kingdom."  And  it  may  be  added 
happily  now — nowhere. 

Facts  About  Spurs 

The  artificial  metal  spur  as  an  appliance  in  cock-fighting  is  by  no 
means  a  modern  invention,  though  its  use  has  been  in  abeyance  for  a 
considerable  period,  especially  in  England,  if  not  in  other  countries.  As  late 
as  the  seventeenth  century  it  could  scarcely  have  been  the  custom,  for 
Gervase  Markham,  writing  on  the  subject  of  Game-fowl  combats,  distinctly 
states  "that  having  so  far  prepared  your  cock  by  trimming,  you  shall  with 
a  knife  scrape  his  spurs  to  points,  and  then  put  him  down  to  try  his  for- 
tune." As  to  when  it  became  the  common  practice  to  cut  off  the  natural 
and  to  arm  the  birds  with  artificial  spurs  is  an  undecided  question,  yet 
there  is  but  little  doubt  that  at  the  Cockpit  Royal  weapons  both  of  silver 
and  steel  were  at  once  the  usual  and  necessary  arming  in  the  struggle  for 
life  or  death.  The  use  of  these,  instead  of  the  natural  spurs,  has  to  the 
thinking  mind  somewhat  too  hastily  and  recklessly  been  called  barbarous, 
when  in  point  of  fact  it  really  is  not  so,  tending,  as  it  does,  greatly  to  shorten 
the  conflict,  the  striking  power  by  such  means  acting  with  more  deadly 
certainty,  every  blow  telling  in  a  far  more  conclusive  way  than  the  softer, 
natural,  less  efficient  young  spurs  of  the  scarcely  year-old  "stag,"  they  being 
weak  and  less  hurtful.  This  possibly  would  not  be  so  with  the  older, 
fully  matured  cock.  Yet  even  here  the  artificial  spurs  would  end  the  fight 
sometimes  at  the  first  stroke,  and  if  not,  then  after  a  few  passes  had  been 
exchanged.  Therefore,  reasonably  speaking,  the  use  of  the  metal  weapons 
is  less  punishing  than  without,  and  the  term  barbarous  certainly  has  been, 
and  IS,  misapplied. 


Ancient   and    Modern   Game-cocks 


351 


The  artificial  spurs  were  sometimes  in  the  remote  past  made  of  brass, 
iron,  steel,  or  silver.  Those  that  have  been  discovered  are  not  only  of 
the  two  latter  metals,  but  also  differ  much  from  the  modern  make,  inso- 
much as  they  more  resemble  elongated  protective  cappings  than  abso- 
lutely lengthened  natural  forms  for  defense  or  destruction,  while  not  a 


1.  Manila  spurs,  native  workmanship,  recently  s 

2.  A  very  old  drop-socket  steel  or  iron  spur. 

3.  A  pair  of  steel  spurs  of  Kendrick,  Kennick,  < 


nebyj.  Hancock,  C.  E. 


4.  A  pair  of  Watling  steel  or  iron  spurs. 

5.  A  pair  of  Singleton  steel  spurs. 

6.  A  pair  of  long  drop  silver  spurs. 


few  of  the  spurs  made  in  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  centuries  have 
varied  from  tw^o  to  six  inches  in  length  from  the  heel  to  point ;  though  the 
size  of  the  latter  is  with  me  but  a  matter  of  hearsay,  yet,  being  on  good 
authority,  it  is  given  as  fact.  Not  all  were  made  of  metal,  some  of  the 
continental  being  bone  or  horn. 

The  making  of  cockspurs  was  a  great  art,  and  by  no  means  one  of 
easy  production;  while  as  often  many  hundreds  or  thousands  of  poimds 


352  The   Poultry    Book 

depended  on  the  battle,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  manufacture  received 
every  care  and  attention,  both  in  the  material,  shape,  bend,  curve,  and 
fitting,  the  metal  being  of  the  highest  temper,  welded  into  form  with 
thoughtful  touch  and  practical  nicety.  Birds  of  a  certain  length  of  limb 
required  one  make,  others  another;  while  the  mode  of  attack,  varied 
action  of  hitting,  striking,  or  blow-delivery  had,  or  should  have,  appropriate 
lengths,  inclines,  or  well-considered  curves.  The  practiced  setter  knew 
this,  and  the  spursmith  could  and  did  make  to  the  requirements  with  an 
exactitude  scarcely  to  be  excelled.  With  such  perfection  of  material  and 
knowledge  of  the  craft  but  few  names  were  associated,  and  of  these  their 
handiwork  was  treasured,  valued,  and  carefully  kept.  As  heirlooms, 
many  exist  at  the  present  time,  with  oft-told  stories  of  battles  won  by  the 
gallant  warrior  birds  which  wore  them,  aye,  and  that  long  ago.  Yet  even 
these,  of  high  courage  and  with  desperate  fighting  power  and  endurance, 
when  armed  with  steel  would,  as  cravens,  turn  from  "silver,"  though  of 
the  same  size  and  make.  This  is  so  well  known  that  when  a  match  was  ' 
made  the  terms  used  were  for  steel  or  silver.  j 

The  illustrations  show  the  different  makes  of  some  of  the  most  cele-  i 
brated  cockspur  armorers,  and,  more  conclusively  than  words,  their  ^ 
varied  forms  for  usage. 


^. 


OLD    ROMAN    SILVER    SPUR 

Found  in  Cornwall 

The  property  of  Mr.  John  Harris 


TRANSATLANTIC    GAME-COCK 
Photographed  and  owned  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke,  Indiana 


AN    AMERICAN   COLLECTION    OF  COCK-SPURS 


Dr.   H.   p.  Clarke,   Indiana 


iN  THE  illustrations  reproduced  herewith  are  shown  what  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  varied  assortment  of  artificial  spurs 
in  the  world.  Numbers  i,  3  to  6,  8,  14,  15,  35,  36,  43 
to  46  were  made  at  Indianapolis,  Indiana.  The  other 
specimens  are  freaks  and  foreign  spurs  collected  from  many- 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Of  the  forty-eight  specimens  here  shown, 
each  one  represents  a  pair  excepting  the  slashers,  which  come  singly  and 
are  used  only  one  at  a  time. 

Numbers  3,  6,  8  and  36  are  the  famous  "Gold  Spurs"  which  have 
attracted  considerable  attention  in  some  of  the  largest  cockpits  of  this 
country  and  Europe.  They  are  triple  plated  with  gold.  These  are  the 
"  Armes  Americaines"  which  in  1894  revolutionized  spur-making  in  France 
and  Belgium.  Number  3  were  used  at  the  International  Concourse  of 
that  year,  and  with  No.  6  was  won  what  was  in  some  respects  the  most 
important  main  ever  fought  in  Europe:  America  against  France  and 
Belgium  combined. 

Numbers  i,  3,  4,  5,  6,  36,  43  and  44  are  Full  Drop  Sockets  of  various 
lengths  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  inches,  the  longest 
(Number  36)  being  a  pair  of  shake-bag  size  made  expressly  for  slugger 
cocks  and  locally  known  as  "  Soul- Searchers." 

Numbers  8  and  46  are  Regulations.  Number  45  is  of  Cincinnati  style. 
Numbers  14  and  15  are  Half-Drops,  Front  Drops  or  "  Jaggers,"  as  they  are 
called  in  different  sections  of  the  country. 

10.     Drop  Sockets  made  in  England. 

II  and  12.     Ordinary  French  gaffs. 

13.     From  southern  Belgium. 

17.     Typical  English  steels,  made  by  J.  Tepin. 

19.     Very  old  gaffs  from  Scotland. 

21.  Meat-ax  Slasher  of  American  make. 

22.  Texas  Slasher  from  San  Antonio. 

355 


356 


The    Poultry    Book 


23.  Ivory  "haip" 
from  Scotland. 

24.  Very  old  tin  spur, 
early  history  unknown. 

25.  Scottish  "haip"; 
natural  cock-spur  with  metal 
socket. 

26.  Round-socket 
Slasher,  American  make. 

28.  Horn  spur  from  a 
Belgian  settlement  in  this 
State. 

29.  Horn  spur  from 
northern  Belgium. 

3 1 .  Bronze  socket ,  iron 
blade.  Very  ancient  relic 
from  pays  dWrtois,  or 
"country  of  Artois," 
France. 

27.  30.  32,  ?>?>,  39.  40. 
Slashers  from  various  parts 
of  Mexico. 

34.  Australian  gaff  ; 
Brisbane,  Queensland. 

35.  American  50- 
millimetre  gaff",  made 
to     conform     to     the 

newly  adopted  International  Standard  of  Europe. 

37.  From  Manila,  Philippine  Islands,  U.  S.  A. 

38.  Filipino   Slasher   in   sheath. 

41.  One  of  the  famous  old  silver  spurs  of  England.  ]\Iade  of  silver 
with  copper  alloy  and  yet  has  a  temper  equal  to  the  finest  steel.  Spur- 
making  of  this  kind  is  a  lost  art,  as  no  man  alive  knows  how  to  temper 
pure  silver. 

42.  "American  style"  spur  from  France. 

47.  Three-inch  Slasher  from  Central  America. 

48.  Five-and-a-half-inch  Slasher  from  southern  Alexico. 


AN     AMERICAN     COLLECTION     OF     SPLRi 
Reproduced  by  courtesy  ..f  the  owner,  Ur.  H.  P.  Carke 


An    American    Collection   of   Cock-spurs         357 


American  Contests 

There  are  three  different  kinds  of  cocking  contests  in  this  country : 
short  heels,  inch-and-a-half  heels,  and  long  heels.  In  the  northern  States 
east  of  the  Alleghanies  and  also  west  of  the  Rocky  ]\Iountains  the  inch- 
and-a-quarter  Regulation,  No.  46  in  collection,  is  the  only  spur  which 
local  pit  rules  allow.  In  the  remaining  portion  of  the  North  the  popular 
spur  is  one  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  without  restriction  as  to  style.  This 
means  the  use  of  steels  such  as  Numbers  i,  5,  8  or  14,  though  the  Drop 
Sockets  are  objected  to  in  some  localities. 

In  most  parts  of  the  South  "long  heels"  prevail,  the  only  requirement 
being  that  blades  be  round  from  socket  to  point.  Each  man  may  use 
any  style  and  length  he  choose,  and  the  spurs  most  in  vogue  are  Full 
Drops  like  Numbers  4,  6,  43,  44.  Occasionally  one  will  see  Half-Drops, 
Number  15,  and  more  rarely  still  such  spurs  as  Number  35.     Numbers  9, 

41,    and    the    gaffs   shown    :' _ 

in  Mr.  Weir's  pictures 
would  never  be  used  in 
the  United  States.  Those 
old  English  spurs  of  silver 
and  steel  are  interesting 
as  curiosities,  but  of  no 
value  for  practical  purposes 
in  this  progressive  age, 
being  almost  as  far  behind 
the  American  Drop  Socket 
as  the  ancient  flint-lock  is 
behind   the   modern  Krag. 

The  Frenchmen  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec  use  long 
gaffs,  all  the  rest  of  Canada 
short  ones.  In  Mexico  and 
Central  America  there  is  no 
fighting  now  except  in 
slashers  or  navajas,  the 
latter  word   being    Spanish    ' - 

-.  T  /•  AMERICAN    COLLECTION    OF    SPURS 

for    razors.      In    former  ow„ed by d. h. p. aar.e 


358 


The    Poultry    Book 


times  birds  were  often  fought  "naked  heel"  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  until  a  couple  of  Chinamen  came  along  with  a  string  of 
Oriental  cocks,  some  six  or  eight  years  ago,  and  killed  that  kind  of  sport, 
likewise  numerous  pit  fowl.  The  Cubans  and  Puerto  Ricans  fight  almost 
exclusively  in  natural  spurs  or  their  artificial  equivalents,  zapatones, 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Scottish  "haips."  In  Spanish-speaking  South 
American  countries  the  rule  is  either  naked  heels  or  slashers,  never  round 
blades,  while  the  Brazilians  match  their  birds  in  blunt  natural  spurs,  just 
as  do  the  Japanese. 

Across  the  Atlantic 

In  Scotland,  where  the  steel  (Number  19)  was  once  in  vogue,  the 
natural  spur  or  its  substitute,  the  "haip,"  now  reigns  supreme.  Ireland 
is  about  equally  divided  between  naked  heel  and  old-time  Singleton. 
Northern  and  eastern  Belgium  employ  a  spur  of  horn,  Number  29. 
Southern  Belgium  and  northern  France  formerly  fought  in  steels  like 
Numbers  11  to  13,  then  tried  to  copy  the  "American  style,"  which  resulted 
in  Number  42,  then  barred  Drop  Sockets  and  adopted  a  spur  similar  to 
Number  35,  and  finally  at  the  Regional  Congress  of  Cockers  of  the  North, 
June  29,  1 90 1,  called  for  a  steel  whose  blade  shall  be  absolutely  straight 
and  horizontal,  with  a  length  of  fifty  millimetres,  or  about  one  inch  and 
seven-eighths.  This  last  has  not  proven  entirely  satisfactory,  and  although 
vigorously  upheld  by  the  organ  of  the  fancy,  Le  Journal  des  Coqueleitrs, 
it  is  noticeable  that  many  mains  the  past  season  were  fought  amies  lihres, 
or,  as  we  would  say,  "long  heels." 


From  a  photograph 


..-tsSf      ■-*^    ''^^ 


•  ,^L)f'^ 


CAPTAIN     HEATON'S     CHAMPION     MODERN     ENGLISH     GAME     STAG-COCK. 


Photograph  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke. 
GAME-COCKS    TETHERED    ON    THE    LAWN 
An  old  Mexican  method  adopted  in  Indiana 


THE  MODERN  GAME-FOWL 


alOTHING  stands  still;  all  things  change  and  are  ever 
changing.  The  admired  of  yesterday  is  thought  less  of 
to-day,  and,  where  "fancy"  leads,  will  be  of  the  past 
to-morrow\  What  is  now  "a  property"  is  in  time  called 
"a  defect," — not  that  it  is  so,  but  so  "young  fashion" 
wills  it.  The  flaunting  dame  toys  with  to-day  and  yet  sighs  for 
the  changeful  morrow  —  w4th  her,  only  novelty  charms.  -  And  thus 
fancy  has  out-fancied  the  old  English  warrior  Game-fowl  —  the 
sturdy,  strong,  and  valiant  bird  of  ages.  It  has  been  singularly 
interesting  to  watch  the  process  and  the  ever-moving  change.  One  at 
this  time  can  scarcely  realize  how  or  why  it  was  done.  It  is  not  as  if 
no  standard  existed  of  what  the  Game-cock  should  be;  this  standard  had 
been  recognized,  and  bred  to,  from  time  without  date.  The  good  type  of 
the  Game-cock  was  held  in  high  esteem.  Power  and  symmetry  were  not 
only  sought  but  found,  for  in  the  pride  of  beauty,  strength,  courage  and 
undaunted  valor  he  was  peerless  and  unequaled,  much  less  surpassed — 
the  admiration  of  all  beholders.  The  change  was  effected  slowly.  It 
was  the  work  of  certain  judges  of  birds.  One  liked  less  hackle,  another 
not  so  much  tail,  a  third  agreed  with  both,  while  the  fourth  wanted  a  longer 
"reach,"  even  though  the  fighting  days  were  past.  The  reachey  bird 
was  developed.  There  was  a  joining  of  hands,  a  little  ]\lalay  crossing, 
more  selection  away  from  the  true  old  type.  On  and  away  year  by  year, 
passing  on  and  becoming  less  of  the  one  and  more  of  another,  the  modem 

359 


360  The    Poultry    Book 

Game  resulted.  Still,  "the  old"  warrior  is  as  grand  as  he  was  fifty,  nay,  a 
hmidred  years  ago.  The  standard  of  what  he  then  was  is  what  he  must 
be  to-day. 

Mr.  Weir  says:  "Whether  the  change  is  for  the  better  is  really,  in  a 
sense,  a,  matter  of  opinion.  Happily,  we  have  the  old,  as  well  as  the  new, 
consequently  there  comes  to  our  aid  these  standards  for  comparison.  We 
are,  however,  asked  to  disregard  the  old  in  favor  of  the  new ;  quite  a  difTerent 
style  and  type,  yet  still  to  be  called  and  known  as  the  English  Game- 
cock. There  are  those  who  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  improvement  is  of 
such  high  quality  that  the  new  breed  has  not  an  ounce  of  superfluous  flesh." 

In  the  meager,  tall,  attenuated  form  now  in  vogue  with  some  few 
highly  respected  and  notable  fanciers  we  have  a  bird  that  has  been  changed 
from  one  with  a  large,  full,  gracefully  feathered  and  "sickled"  tail  to  one 
of  the  scantiest  and  almost  ludicrous  dimensions.  This  is  partly  achieved 
by  Malay  or  Indian  crosses  and  careful  continuous  selection  in  the 
direction  needed.  Turn  to  the  illustrations  given  of  the  old-style  "Game- " 
fowls,  either  on  coins,  vases,  etc.,  many  of  the  former  dating  back  thousands 
of  years,  and  not  one  will  be  found  with  a  small,  thm,  narrow  tail.  Those 
old  breeders  knew  the  many  advantages  of  an  extra-sized  tail  with  hard, 
well-developed  feathering.  Where  are  the  thick,  strong,  full  and  rounded 
pectoral  muscles  for  the  active  use  of  the  big,  impennous  wings — wings 
of  unusual  form  and  strength  ?  These  must,  of  necessity,  in  the  new  be 
reduced,  as  muscle  is  flesh.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  at  the  present 
time  there  is  a  craze  for  short  tails. 

Our  horses  are  docked  and  their  tails  made  ridiculously  small  to  meet 
the  so-called  modern  ideas  of  fashion.  Irish,  Scotch  and  English  terriers 
and  spaniels  have  more  or  less  mere  stumps  as  tails.  There  is  also  the  short 
or  bob- tailed  sheep-dog;  and,  far  worse  than  all,  the  "novelty  dog,"  the 
Shipperke,  a  tailless,  walking  exhibition  of  modern  "fancy."  Our  Malays, 
Cornish  Indian  crosses  and  Langshans  are  disproportionately  limb  length- 
ened, like  our  warrior  Game.  Let  us  return  to  the  modern  ideas  of  what 
a  Game-fowl  should  be,  with  its  weakened,  stilty,  thin,  storklike  legs,  and 
thighs  with  shanks  to  match ;  the  more  slender  these  are  the  more  a  lessening 
section  of  fanciers  prize  and  value  them.  When  killed  and  trussed  as 
table  fowls  these  thighs  and  legs  make  a  fleshless,  ugly  show.  Yet  breeders 
of  the  new,  almost  nude — so  short  and  close  are  their  scalelike  feathers — 
tell  us  this  is  the  same  breed  that  our  forefathers  loved  and  cherished. 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


361 


The  fancier  of  the  new  Game  pretends  to  ignore  the  pit,  while  he  carries 
some  of  the  old  warrior  bird's  points  of  excellence  to  an  almost  ludicrous 
excess.     To  a  great  extent  he  neglects  those  of  positive  utility  that  were. 


CAPTAIN  Hornby's  old  English  game  cockerel,   1858 

Winner  of  I500  sweepstake 

and  rightly  are  yet,  to  be  found  in  the  true  old  breed — a  breed  that  has 
descended  to  us  intact  as  an  heirloom  from  the  time  of  the  Romans  in 
England  until  our  poultry  shows  of  about  1851-55-58,  at  which  date  the 
modem  heresy  feebly  began  its  growth. 

More  than  forty  years  ago  we  had  the  true  old  long-pedigree  breeds  in 


362 


The    Poultry    Book 


plenty,  yet  even  then  Mr.  Weir  noted  that  when  some  of  the  more  modern 
"cockers"  caught  up  a  bird,  after  making  a  half  circle  to  steady  it,  they 
would  rest  it  on  one  hand  and  draw  the  hackle  quickly  through  the  other 
to  take  out  "the  spread,"  as  they  called  it.  At  the  earlier  shows  of 
Birmingham  and  elsewhere  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  for  accusations 
to  be  made  of  "hackle-drawing"  to  fine  up  the  neck  or  plume  hackle 
so  that  it  should  appear  "thin  and  fine."  A  reaction  in  favor  of 
the  old   English  birds  has  arisen.     Common   sense   has    asserted    itself, 

as  in  the  end  it  always 
will.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  length  of  head, 
neck,  and  limb,  com- 
bined with  the  paucity 
and  shortness  of 
feather,  has  become 
such  as  to  border  on 
absurdity,  while 
beauty  of  form  and 
natural  proport ions 
were  on  the  verge  of 
extinction  i  n  Eng- 
land's most  favorite 
fowl.  Happily,  the 
admirers  and  breeders 
of  the  true  "old 
English  Game"  re- 
sisted this  innovation ; 
clubs  were  formed, 
and  a  stand  made 
against  a  change. 
.;   .^j  ^  Yet,  for  all  this,  it 

%  _. ^,^^,^ 'mm mm ^      must  be  admitted  that 

BBfr"^     '"''  ^^  ^^^..^iMMWitttfMIMiMMHIHMSH^Mfl      in  the  hands  of  some 

j;i  •t'-^n-aph  by  courtesy  0/ Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke. 

.N  HENNY  GAME  thcrc   is    a   gracc  and 

beauty  pecuhar  to  the 
The  absolute  failures    are    numerous,    but    the   few 


bird    as   it  now  is. 

that  are  good  are  justified  by  the  result. 


These,  in  the  hands  of  such 


The    Modern    Game-fowl  363 

men  as  Captain  Heaton,  bred  as  he  breeds  them,  shown  as  he  shows 
them,  are  widely  different  from  the  general  rut  of  weak-legged  nonentities. 
With  him  may  be  classed  the  names  of  Ainscough,  Briarly,  and  others. 
In  such  hands  there  is  something  beyond  the  bird  to  admire  not  only  in 
production,  but  the  wonderful  way  in  which  they  are  conditioned,  and 
the  faultless  style,  vigor,  and  fulness  of  life  in  which  they  are  shown. 

Points  of  Beauty 

Head,  long  and  narrow;  beak,  straight,  with  a  light  curve  and  finely 
yet  strongly  set  on  the  head ;  the  eye  large,  full  and  fiery ;  the  neck  long 
and  thin,  yet  strong  shoulders;  wide  in  the  body,  deep,  but  rounded, 
and  flesh  on  breast  full  and  hard,  with  a  slight  tendency  to  length ;  thighs, 
long  and  thin,  or  slender,  slightly  bent  inward ;  the  legs  long,  feet  long  and 
well  to  the  ground,  with  sharp  toe-nails,  spur  set  on  rather  low ;  tail  narrow, 
small,  and  carried  low,  the  whole  of  the  feathers  short,  hard,  almost  like 
scales,  yet  moist  or  cool  to  the  touch;  general  carriage  somewhat  of  a 
tendency  to  be  upright,  yet  not  so  much  so  as  the  Indian  Game,  or  Malay. 
In  appearance,  when  good,  it  is  light  and  elegant  (but  this  is  the  exception 
and  not  the  rule).  The  hen  is  built,  to  use  a  modern  expression,  on  the 
same  lines. 

It  is  recorded  that  Captain  Heaton,  one  of  the  very  best  fanciers  of  the 
day,  has  by  no  means  reluctantly  paid  300  guineas  for  three  cockerels, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of  his  own  breeding  have  realized  as  much. 
He,  of  all  the  modern  Game  fanciers,  is  the  winner  of  champion  cups. 
Yet  the  interest  wanes.  There  are  so  few  prizes  and  so  many  blanks, 
unless  the  birds  are  bred,  handled,  and  conditioned,  not  only  by  the 
practical,  but,  it  may  be  well  said,  the  highly  gifted  fancier.  Such  men 
are  not  of  an  e very-day  occurrence,  as  a  reference  to  the  "show-pen" 
clearly  proves.  Whether  the  new  creation  will  be  in  existence  fifty  years 
hence  is  a  moot  problem  which  only  time  can  prove,  but  a  reference  to  the 
entries  of  the  Crystal  Palace  Shows  leads  to  the  supposition  that  the  bird 
is  gradually  subsiding. 

Locating  the  Range 

The  range,  if  possible,  should  be  beyond  the  hearing  of  the  hourly 
challenge  of  neighboring  cocks.  "A  thing,"  says  Mr.  Howlet,  "which 
is  apt  to  stir  up  their  choler.     It  is,  as  Captain  Markham  (1620)  so  much 


364  The    Poultry    Book 

commends,  a  lodge,  grange-house,  or  mill,  because,  for  the  most  part,  such 
places  are  remote  from  neighbors.  Choose  a  walk  that  is  graced  with 
solitude,  having  green  fields  or  pleasant  meadows  on  one  hand  and  moun- 
tainous, hilly,  dry  ground  on  the  other.  A  murmuring  brook,  rivulet,  or, 
in  their  stead,  some  pleasant  pools  of  clear  sweet  water  is  desirable.  Avoid 
ha\'ing  too  many  hens  in  your  walk.  Indeed,  had  the  cock  but  two  or  three 
hens  it  is  enough,  and  the  walk  would  be  better  than  wdien  a  larger  number 
is  kept.  ]\Iany  hens  make  a  cock  too  lustful,  and  greatly  debilitates  a  bird 
of  the  Game,  though  length  of  turn  and  good  feeding  will  much  restore  a 
cock  that  is  decayed." 

Many  of  the  old  breeders  varied  the  number  of  the  hens  according  to 
the  time  at  which  they  will  put  up.  This  system  is  the  best  to  adopt. 
In  January,  two  or  three  hens,  according  to  the  age  of  the  cock ;  in  February, 
four  hens,  or  at  the  end  of  the  month  five.  With  Game  hens  never 
add  a  new  one,  but  continue  with  the  original  number.  A  fresh  hen 
would  most  likely  have  a  sorry  time,  if  not  killed,  before  the  hens  in 
possession  became  friendly.  It  is  well  to  get  hens  used  to  each  other  before 
the  introduction  of  the  cock.  In  a  measure  it  prevents  favoritism,  but 
the  cock  is  sure  to  have  a  preference  in  this  respect. 

If  there  is  a  wood  or  shade  to  which  the  birds  can  retire  during  the  heat 
of  the  day  in  summer  it  will  be  of  great  service  in  keeping  them  in  health. 
Game-fowls,  in  particular,  like  to  perch  in  the  trees  either  in  damp  or  hot 
w^eather.  If  circumstances  will  permit  of  their  being  roosted  out,  it  is 
far  preferable  to  a  hen-house.  It  contributes  to  their  often  becoming 
exceedingly  wild,  and,  if  frightened,  they  often  fly  beyond  their  allotted 
bounds  and  are  lost. 

When  Game-fowls  can  have  full  liberty  and  a  wood  to  fly  in  and 
about  they  have  much  stronger  wings,  legs,  and  better  feet.  Alert 
moving  about  in  high  grass,  underwood,  among  the  boughs  and  leaves  of 
bushes  and  trees,  gives  a  gloss  and  color  to  their  plumage  that  can  be 
obtained  in  no  other  way.  Neither  do  their  feathers  or  shanks  ever 
present  that  sunburnt  hue  that  must  be  with  those  kept  more  in  the  open 
and  devoid  of  such  cool  and  invigorating  shelter. 

Game-fowl  will  do  well  in  an  uninterrupted  run  of  a  stack-yard. 
The  ordinary  farm  buildings  and  straw-yards,  where  proper  nest  places  are 
provided  and  where  they  can  roost,  will  suit  them  even  in  winter.  Fowls 
having  such  full  liberty  are  seldom,  if  ever,  in  any  way  diseased.     With 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


36s 


this  freedom  one  essential  is  clear — clean  water  in  a  shaded  place  twice 
daily,  and  a  pile  of  sand  and  wood  ashes  under  cover  close  by  for  a  dust 
bath.  Care  should  be  taken  to  feed  them,  when  possible,  on  different 
ground  day  by 
day,  thus  pre- 
venting any 
particular  spot 
being  stenched. 
If  two 
clutches  of 
chickens  are 
required  of  the 
same  hen  in 
one  season,  it 
is  best  effected 
by  putting  her 
first  eggs  under 
another  fowl  of 
the  same  breed. 
The  Game  hen 
should  be  kept 
imder  a  coop 
among  the 
other  hens 
until  the  pro- 
pensity to  sit 
has  passed 
away.     If    she 

is  taken  away  while  the  "heat  "  lasts  she  will  be  fresh  again  to  the  run, 
and  there  will  certainly  be  considerable  fighting  and  perhaps  much  dis- 
figurement on  her  return.  On  the  next  occasion  of  the  Game  hen  wanting 
to  sit,  it  is  advisable  to  let  her  do  so,  otherwise  she  will  get  a  weakened 
constitution.  It  is  argued  that  by  continually  preventing  hens  from  sitting, 
after  a  generation  or  two  the  inclination  becomes  less  frequent.  This  may 
be  so,  and  is  possibly  correct.  Mr.  Weir  has  prevented  hens  of  the  Game 
from  sitting  the  whole  year.  They  continued  laying  well.  The  second 
season  they  w^ere  found  less  inclined  to  sit  and  more  regular  in  laying. 


BLACK-BREASTED   DERBY  OLD    ENGLISH    GAME 

Bred  and  owned  by  Harrison  Weir 


366 


The   Poultry    Book 


Sometimes  the  cock  will  take  a  dislike  to  a  brood  hen.  This  is  par- 
ticularly so  among  Game-fowls.  The  hen  must  be  removed  in  such  a  case ; 
otherwise  serious  consequences,  possibly  death,  are  likely  to  occur  to  the 
hen.  Some  breeders  remove  the  cock  for  a  few  days,  putting  him  with 
the  hens  a  short  time  each  day,  during  which  time  the  hen,  if  broody, 
is  taken  up. 

vary  according  to  the  season ; 
nine  is  sufficient  in  February, 
thirteen  at  the  end  of  March. 
The  Game  hen,  being  small, 
is  unable  to  cover  with 
proper  warmth  as  many  as 
twelve  or  thirteen  in  cold 
weather.  She  cannot  well 
mother  the  chickens  if 
hatched.  For  want  of 
warmth  they  are  likely  to 
be  weakly.  Should  the 
chickens  hatch  unequally, 
those  first  out  should  be 
gently  removed,  so  as  to 
disturb  the  hen  as  little  as 
possible,  and  placed  in  a 
well-  warmed  flannel-lined 
basket  near  a  fire.  When 
all  are  hatched  they  should 
be  returned  at  night ;  other- 
wise, it  is  possible  the  hen  may  kill  them.  The  next  day  the  hen  and 
brood  should  be  taken  to  a  dry  place,  put  under  a  coop,  and  left  at  liberty 
in  a  room  or  under  a  shed.  Nothing  is  more  likely  to  kill  little  chickens 
than  wet,  dirty,  or  long-grass  runs.  Many  fine,  healthy  broods  are  destroyed 
by  being  confined  on  damp  floors,  wet  straw,  or  long  grass.  As  a  rule, 
young  chickens  cannot  be  kept  too  dry,  though  they  may  be  too  hot. 

Game  chickens,  like  Hamburgs,  require  special  attention  for  a  week 
or  two — in  fact,  until  their  heads  are  feathered,  after  which  they  have 
passed  the  most  critical  time.  At  first  they  are  best  fed  on  stale  bread- 
crumbs and  hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  small  and  well  mixed.     Crushed 


AMERICAN     GAME    STAG 


The   Modern   Game-fowl  367 

and  broken  wheat  later  on,  with  a  very  httle  raw  meat  cut  fine  and  mixed 
in  with  chopped  lettuce  or  tender  young  grass,  with  cheese  crumbs  rubbed 
small  in  ground  oats  can  be  used ;  occasionally  a  meal  worm  may  be  given. 
Mr.  Weir  does  not  advise  whole  oats  or  wheat  until  they  are  at  least  six 
to  seven  weeks  old.  Ground  oats  or  maize  meal  may  be  given,  slightly 
mixed  with  boiled  potatoes  and  some  thinly  sliced  fresh  cabbage ;  naturally 
fowl  do  not  get  grain  in  the  spring.  Above  all,  clean  water  is  essential, 
but  many  old  breeders  prefer  barley-water  for  the  first  week  or  two.  Some 
advantage  is  gained  by  the  chickens  being  brought  up  under  ordinary 
barndoor  fowls,  because  they  are  generally  excellent  mothers,  and  rarely 
quarrel  with  other  hens. 

With  Game  chickens,  the  young  cocks,  if  well  bred,  prove  to  be  most 
pugnacious  at  a  very  early  age.  To  a  certain  degree  this  can  be  somewhat 
remedied  by  removing  all  the  young  pullets.  Thus  on  one  occasion  a 
clutch  of  twelve  little  cock  chickens  were  running  together  with  the  hen. 
Being  of  varying  sizes,  they  seldom  fought.  Neither  did  the  other  sex, 
removed  at  the  same  time.  This  is  more  easily  managed  when  the  eggs 
are  hatched  in  an  incubator.  Old  "cockers"  used  to  select  the  most 
promising  chickens  from  the  broods  and  destroy  the  rest,  thinking  that  a 
less  number  would  thrive  better.  Mr.  Weir  does  not  agree  with  this 
practice,  provided  the  number  does  not  exceed  ten  or  twelve.  They  help 
to  keep  each  other  warm. 

There  are  three  ways  of  cutting  the  comb,  says  Mr.  Weir:  The  first 
is  close  to  the  head,  which  is  called  the  low  cut;  the  next  is  that  slanting 
upward  toward  the  back  of  the  comb,  called  the  slant  cut ;  and  the  third, 
the  more  ancient,  cutting  on  a  curve,  leaving  the  comb  higher  in  the  middle 
and  so  round  to  the  hook  of  the  beak,  called  the  high  cut.  The  latter  is 
practised  in  America,  though  at  present  in  England  the  secoiid  is  thought 
to  be  the  best.  In  all  cases  the  cockerels  should  be  shut  up  for  a  day  or 
two  on  low  diet  before  the  operation,  after  which,  if  young,  they  may  be 
dubbed  without  loss  of  blood.  After  a  week  or  two  their  wattles  may  be 
removed.  The  bird  is  thus  saved  from  much  possible  after-mutilation, 
torn  combs  and  wattles  by  fighting.  But  is  it  necessary  ?  I  have  been 
credibly  informed  by  an  old  cocker  that  many  of  the  birds  of  the  cockpit  in 
the  old  times  had  entire  combs.  They  generally  appeared  to  have  more 
stamina,  and  were  more  daring  and  absolutely  ferocious.  The  red  combs 
of  their  adversaries,  acting  as  an  incentive,  tended  to  enrage  them  in  the 


368 


The  Poultry  Book 


same  way  that  a  red  flag  does  a  bull.  The  comb  and  the  wattles  of  the 
cock  are  not  only  ornamental,  but  by  their  elastic  resistance  are  natural 
buffers  to  break  the  force  of  a  blow.  As  such,  though  vascular,  they  are 
almost  devoid  of  feeling.  Of  this  I  am  convinced  after  many  years  of 
close  observation.  I  am  also  of  opinion  that  if  the  combs  of  the  cockerels 
are  cut  off  when  young — that  is,  as  soon  as  they  arc  of  sufficient  size  and 
in  the  way  stated  above,  the  operation  is  not  painful.  Instead  of  being,  as 
some  aver,  cruel,  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  merciful  act  under  the  conditions. 

The     havoc     and 
[  j     disfigurement  that 

ensues  when  young 
cockerels  are  kept 
together  un- 
dubbed  is  not 
only  lamentable 
but  often  very 
destructive;  there- 
fore, on  the  side 
o  f  humanity,  i  n 
cocks  of  the  Game 
it  is  a  matter  of 
necessity.  If  every 
bird  could  be  kept 
separate  this  would 
be  another  matter, 
but  where  twenty, 
forty,  sixty,  a 
hundred  or  more 
I  are  raised,  such 
I  isolation  becomes 
'  impossible. 
_   ,  ^Mien   a  cock 

is  put  up  to  be  con- 
ditioned for  show, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  cleanse  the  system.     The  following  pill  or  condi- 
ment   is    said  to  be  of  service  and  is  recommended  by  Robert  Howlet 
in  the  "Royal    Pastime    of    Cocking,"    1709:      "Take    of    white    sugar- 


MR.    FLETCHER   MOSSES     OLD    ENGLISH    GAMI 


The    Modern  Game-fowl  369 

candy,  rosemary,  feverfew,  and  ground  ivy  bruised;  mingle  these  with 
sweet  butter;  let  the  sugar-candy  be  finely  powdered,  and  let  these 
be  well  incorporated  together.  These  will  cleanse  a  cock  of  grease  and 
add  to  his  strength." 

Recipes  for  Making   Cock-Bread 

Mr.  Weir  gives  the  recipes  of  several  kinds  of  cock-bread,  most  of 
which  were  generally  considered  to  conduce  largely  toward  getting  a  farm 
cock  mto  the  highest  possible  condition.  If  this  be  so,  it  is  possible  that 
something  of  the  kind  may  be  found  preeminently  useful  in  preparing 
birds  for  the  show-pen,  though,  m  Mr.  Weir's  opinion,  good  outdoor 
feeding,  with  an  unlimited  walk,  cannot  be  surpassed.  Some  fancy 
that  the  common  baker's  bread  is  as  good  as  any.  Instead  of  plain 
bread,  Mr.  Weir  found  toast  and  a  little  ale  once  a  day  or  at  night,  just 
before  exhibiting,   highly  invigorating. 

The  following  is  another  recipe  for  making  cock-bread,  given  by 
Howlet:  "Take  of  wheat,  pease,  beans,  and  oats  of  each  a  like  quantity 
m  meal  or  flour  finely  dressed,  with  the  juice  of  liquorice  and  a  little  sack- 
wine,  or  strong  stale  beer  with  brown  sugar-candy,  aniseeds  and  carroway- 
seeds  mixed  together;  but  if  the  season  be  hot,  you  must  put  white  wine 
instead  of  sack,  and  as  much  common  ale  as  will  make  the  flour  up  into 
dough,  with  the  whites  of  ten  or  twenty  eggs,  and  a  yolk  or  two  amongst 
them ;  and  this  they  take  to  be  the  best  sort  of  bread  to  feed  cocks  withal. 
There  are  those  that  think  the  finest  wheat-bread  with  good  store  of  hot 
spices  in  it,  and  soaked  or  sprinkled  only  with  simple  water  or  juice  of  wood- 
sorrel,  to  be  the  best  food  for  a  cock.  And  some  again  heed  not  what 
bread  they  have,  so  that  they  have  good  store  of  flesh  to  give  their  cocks, 
crying  that  up  for  the  best  and  strongest  food.  But  in  my  opinion,  these 
extremely  err  in  fancying  flesh  food  to  be  fit  for  a  cock ;  these  carnivorous 
feeders  understand  not  the  nature  of  these  valiant  sort  of  birds  who  force 
such  unnatural  food  on  them." 

A  little  meat  may  be  given  to  advantage  with  other  food,  but  vege- 
tables should,  in  some  way,  be  mixed  with  it.  Mr.  Weir  prefers  in  summer 
ground  oats,  with  a  very  little  ground  barley,  wet  with  milk  or  water, 
some  finely  chopped  bullock's  liver,  and  cabbages. 

"Some  feed  their  cocks,"  says  Mr.  Howlet,  "twice  a  day,  and  others 
three  times,  and  water  them  between  each  feeding,  and  that  for  the  most 


370 


The    Poultry    Book 


part  with  common  fountain  water;  but  the  following  barley  water  is  best, 
especially  in  summer,  and  indeed  all  the  year  long,  when  the  climate  is 
anything  hot  and  sultry;  for  this  water  excellently  cools  and  wonderfully 

refreshes  the  vital  spirits  that  labor 
under  heat;  it  has  also  a  cleansing 
quality,  and  is  highly  restorative  when 
feverish  distempers  afflict  the  body, 
therefore  preferred  before  common 
fountain  water:  Take  barley  and  boil 
it  in  spring  water.  Let  it  stand  to 
cool  and  settle;  then  pour  off  the 
settlings  and  give  this  to  your  feed- 
ing cocks. 

"But,  in  my  opinion,  there  is  yet 
a  better  sort  than  any  of  these,  and  I 
make  it  thus,  viz. :  Of  the  best  and 
finest  wheat-meal  I  take  three- 
quarters  of  a  peck  and  one-c|uarter  of 
oatmeal  of  the  purest  sort,  and  first 
of  all  mix  these  well  together;  then 
add  the  whites  of  twenty  new-laid 
eggs,  four  yolks,  an  ounce  of  the 
best  extract  of  liquorice,  and  as  much  of  the  fine  powder  of  brown 
sugar-candy,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  aniseed  and  carroway-seed, 
grossly  bruised,  with  a  lump  of  good  sweet  butter  as  big  as  your 
fist  at  least,  and  a  quarter  of  a  pint  or  more  of  the  best  white  wine 
that  can  be  got  for  money,  with  three  or  four  spoonsful  of  syrup  of 
clove-gilliflowers  put  into  it,  and  a  date  or  two,  with  some  candied  eringo 
roots  cut  very  small,  so  that  it  may  be  scattered  into  every  part,  and  let 
these  ingredients  be  well  worked  together  in  some  tub  or  pan  for  that  pur- 
pose with  your  hands  until  you  are  satisfied  that  they  are  properly  and 
thoroughly  incorporated.  Then  take  wood-sorrel,  ground  ivy,  feverfew, 
dandelion,  and  burrage,  of  each  a  little  quantity,  and  distil  them  in  a 
cold  still;  add  three  or  four  spoonsful  of  the  pure  juice  of  lemons  to  every 
pint  of  distilled  water,  and  add  as  much  of  thin  julep  as  will  serve  to  make 
all  into  a  good  stiff  paste;  let  this  be  wrought  quick  and  made  into  little 
fiat  loaves,  which  ought  to  be  a  day  or  two  old  before  you  open  them,  and 


Photograph  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke. 
TRAXSATLAXTIC    STAG 
)f  two  battles  at  national  tournament  in  1898 


THE   REV.    H.    H.    HUTTON's    BLACK-BREASTED    BRIGHT   RED   OLD    ENGLISH    GAME 
Bred  by  Mr.  Herbert  Atkinson 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


373 


then,  being  well  rasped  or  pared  so  that  none  of  the  brown  or  burned 
outside  remain,  they  may  then  be  cut  and  given  to  the  cocks  as  aforesaid. 
And  this  I  take  to  be  the  best  and  fittest  sort  of  bread  for  English  cocks, 
it  being  a  food  that  does  greatly  strengthen  and  exhilarate  them,  and  at 
the  same  time  cools  and  keeps  them  temperate  in  their  bodies,  provided 
you  have  regard  to  the  season,  for  in  hot  weather,  or  when  the  climate 
is  more  than  ordinary  hot,  there  must  be  more  of  the  cooling  ingredients 
added,  and  fewer,  or  a  less  quantity,  of  those  that  are  hot  in  nature." 


The  Muffled  Game-fowl 

In  the  Muffled  Game-fowl  we  have  a  very  distinct  form  of  the  old 
fighting-cock,  though  perhaps  it  is  not  so  apparent  to  the  uninitiated. 
It  differs  much  in  form,  carriage,  weight,  and  in  the  bearding  and 
muffling;  it  is  generally  a  much  heavier-framed  bird,  stouter  and  broader; 
the  head  is  thicker  and  shorter,  the  base  of  the  skull  wider  and  rounder, 
the  beak  larger  and  much  curved,  especially  in  the  upper  mandible,  the 
point  or  end  being  down-turned  and  hawklike ;  the  eye  is  usually  dark,  full, 
and  fiery ;  the  feather  muffling  often 
extends  behind  the  skull,  thus 
thickening  the  head  and  neck 
hackle,  while  at  the  sides  it  covers 
the  cheeks  and  becomes  an  almost 
profuse  beard  about  the  lower  part 
of  the  beak,  almost  hiding  the 
wattles;  the  comb  is  stout,  and 
in  some  cases  semidouble,  and 
there  is  mostly  a  fierce,  cour- 
ageous expression,  and  an  un- 
daunted bearing,  almost  amounting 
to  ferocity.  The  general  make  is 
sturdy  and  strong,  the  girth  being 
large;  the  breast  is  roimd  and 
broad,  while  the  full-sized  wings 
are   up-carried    and   almost  touch 

at  the  quill  ends  under  the  tail,  so  devoid  of  oftal  is  the  hinder  part; 
while  the  grand  flag-tail  has  an  upright,  almost  forward  carriage — a 
sure  mdication  of  high-mettled  stamina,    vigor,  and  bravery;   it  has  a 


Mk        ^       jr 


By  courtesy  of  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke. 
TRIO    OF    TRANSATLANTIC    PRIZE-WINNERS 
Owned  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke,  Indiana 


374  The    Poultry    Book 

lofty,  upstanding  carriage,  and  is  well  balanced  on  stout  muscular  thighs, 
legs,  and  strong  shanks,  with  well-formed  feet.  Usually  it  is  somewhat 
heavier  than  the  old  match  cock,  weighing  as  much  as  seven  or  even  more 
pounds,  still  it  is  active,  alert,  and  has  a  style  of  going  and,  it  may  be 
added,  doing  all  its  own. 

The  hen  is  a  female  counterpart  of  the  cock,  and  has  a  peculiar  and 
attractive  appearance,  the  head  often  having,  besides  the  muffling,  a  neat 
rounded  topknot,  though  this  is  not  considered  a  point  of  excellence. 
They  are  good  layers  of  fair-sized  eggs,  careful  and  protective  mothers. 
If  anything,  they  are  the  most  hardy  of  all  the  varieties  of  the  different 
races  of  Game-fowls,  and  certainly  deserve,  if  only  as  table  fowls,  much 
more  attention  and  favorable  estimation  than  is  at  present  accorded 
them.  As  to  color,  the  best,  or  at  least  those  that  have  come  under  Mr. 
Weir's  observation,  are  the  black-breasted  dark  reds,  crow -winged,  black 
in  beak,  shanks,  and  feet. 

The  Tasseled  Game-cock 

The  crested  Game-fowl  is  not  a  modern  creation,  but  of  ancient, 
though  unknown,  origin.  It  is  one  of  the  birds  mentioned  in  "  The  Treatise 
on  Poultry,"  1810,  thus:  "The  EngHsh  tufted  fowl  does  not  surpass 
ours  (French)  in  size,  but  it  stands  higher  on  the  legs.  The  cock,  which 
has  rather  an  aigrette  than  a  tuft,  and  the  bill  and  neck  of  which  are  of  a 
more  open  shape  than  in  the  common  breed,  is  superior  to  ours  for  fighting." 
Other  writers,  both  ancient  and  modern,  have  referred  to  it  as  being  a 
distinct  breed.  In  form  and  feathering  it  closely,  if  not  entirely,  resembles 
the  ordinary  Game-cock,  excepting  that  it  is  generally  of  somewhat  stouter 
make,  and  has  a  more  hawklike  beak.  The  lark-crest  at  the  back  of  the 
comb  is  small,  and  about  one  inch  and  a  half  in  length;  the  feathers  are 
hard,  crisp,  narrow,  with  loose  web  and  rounded  at  the  ends;  the  colors 
are  mostly  very  rich,  and  black-breasted  reds  with  yellow  or  orange  shanks 
and  feet  are  considered  the  best,  and  are  the  truer  breed,  j 

In  their  style  and  habit  they  are  bold,  active,  and  vigorous,  and  have  the 
reputation  of  being  of  the  warrior  blood  that  fought  for  life  and  limb  in  the 
old  pit  days.  One  of  the  best  strains,  and  famous  for  strength  and  courage, 
was  that  of  Richard  Stamp,  which  at  his  death  passed  into  the  possession 
of  John  Harris,  in  whose  company  Mr.  Weir  saw  some  twenty  to  thirty 
in  unlimited  range  in  1894.     There,  among  the  then  flowering  gorse,  and 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


375 


Front  a  drawing  by  Hamso7i  H  t 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCK,   1856 


amid  the  far-extending  rocks  and  greenery,  they  looked  the  perfection  of 
the  Game-fowl,  and  were  by  their  reputed  prowess  worthy  of  the  name. 
It  is  possible  that,  such  services  as  theirs  being  no  longer  required,  ere  long 
the  breed  wiU  become  extinct.     The  hens  inherit  much  of    the  fire  and 


376  The    Poultry    Book 

dash  of  the  master-birds.  They  are  strong,  well  made,  and  fantailed, 
like  the  cocks,  and  as  Game-fowls  should  carry  them  high  and  not  low, 
which  gives  a  soured,  craven  look,  although  it  is  now  thought  to  be  a  point 
of  excellence  by  those  who  profess  to  be  judges  of  the  Game,  and  yet  are 
ignorant  of  the  very  nature,  habits,  and  lofty  bearing  of  the  birds  of  a 
thousand  years.  The  true  breed  of  the  tasseled  Game  had,  and  should 
have,  large  tails,  and  these  should  be  carried  high. 

Spanish  Game-fowl 

The  Spanish  Game-cocks  are  mostly  small,  and  their  fighting  weight 
seldom  exceeds  four  pounds  and  a  half,  many  of  the  most  fiery  and  of 
dashing  courage  being  less  than  four ;  these  are  exceedingly  active  and  very 
game.  They  are  generally  black  reds — that  is,  black-breasted  black  reds, 
with  crow  wings,  and  some  are  black ;  though  small  in  bone,  they  have  the 
true  English  Game  stamp,  and  are  believed  generally  to  have  descended 
from  birds  taken  out  by  or  sent  to  our  officers  during  the  Peninsular  war. 
Many  have  been  exported  from  this  country  during  the  last  sixty  years. 
As  the  small  size  was  preferred,  some  of  our  best  match  cocks,  weighing 
but  three  pounds  four  or  five  ounces,  found  ready  sale  in  Andalusia,  at 
prices  highly  favorable  to  the  seller.  Alike  at  Cadiz,  j\Ialaga,  and  Algeciras, 
]\lr.  Weir  saw  several  that  were  unmistakably  of  the  English  type.  They 
were  seldom  cut  out  for  fighting,  but  their  faces  were  decorated  with 
emerald-green  ornaments,  or  markings,  a  color  much  admired  in  Spain; 
they  are  yellow-  or  carp-shanked,  very  few  being  white.  They  are  fought 
mostly  about  carnival  time,  and  also  at  other  times  should  opportunity 
offer,  excepting  during  Lent. 

The  Hexxy  or  Hen-feathered  Game-cock 

There  are  few  kinds  of  fowls  about  which  there  has  been  more  con- 
troversy, or  so  many  unsupported  statements,  than  those  respecting  the 
Hen-cock  or  Henny  Game,  one  believing  that  they  are  a  degenerate 
section  of  the  old  English  Game,  another  that  they  arose  from  an  occasional 
sport,  being  cultured  and  then  bred  for,  while  others  declare  they  come  of 
some  worn-out  stocks  that  have  been  too  far  bred  in-and-in.  Many  hold 
that  they  are  not  only  a  pure  and  distinct  breed,  but  a  strong,  healthy, 
exceedingly  heroic,  hardy  race  or  section  of  the  old  fighting  cocks  of 
England. 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


377 


They  are  mostly  of  a  larger  size  than  the  match  cock,  weighing  from 
seven  to  eight  and  occasionally  nine  pounds ;  yet  even  then  there  is  no  coarse- 
ness; they  are  thick  in  girth,  though  somewhat  long  in  body;  in  shape  and 
contour  handsome ;  quick  and  alert  in  their  movements,  yet  wanting  the 
proud,  aristocratic,  stately  carriage  that  is  so  conspicuous  in  their  sickle- 
tailed  brethren.  Shy  and  retiring,  they  are  difficult  to  approach,  running 
for  cover  to  any  hiding  bush  or  shelter  near  at  hand,  and  yet  with  this 
apparent  timidity  they  possess  in  fighting  a  courage  unsurpassed  and 
almost,  if  not  quite,  invincible,  which  conclusively  shows  that  there  is  no 
lack  of  health,  endurance,  strength  and  vigor,  being  as  full  of  stamina  as 
any  other  breed.  So  like 
are  the  cocks  to  hens,  both 
in  style  and  plumage,  that 
an  old  Derby  white-shanked 
spurred  hen  often  looks 
the  very  counterpart  of  a 
Henny-cock. 


The 


azeel the 

Game* 


Indian 


This,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  the  true  Indian 
fighting-cock.  It  is  the 
high-class  Game-fowl  o  f 
India,  and  has  been  known 
as  such  ever  since  the  Indian 
life  of  Lord  Clive  —  the 
word  Azeel  indicating  true 
and  noble.  The  breed  is 
one  of  the  oldest,  and  the 
pureness  of  blood  and 
pedigree  have  been  most 
carefully  preserved  for 
centuries  on  centuries  of 
years.  The  origin  of  these  warrior  birds  has  been  lost  in  the  dim  vistas  of 
the  past.  It  has  long  been  kept  as,  and  is,  a  royal  fowl  in  India,  treasured 
beyond  expression  as  such.     It  is  of  the  highest  value,   being  almost 

*  See  page  417,  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke's  "  General  Remarks  About  Game-towls  " 


YORKSHIRE      HERO,     1823 

Trimmed.     The  winner  uf  27  battles 


378 


The  Poultry  Book 


impossible  to  procure  specimens  of  the  purest  blood — the  warriors  of 
to-day — the  descendants  of  such  renowned  in  story.  "  Moorgah  "  is  the 
Hindoo  for  cock,  while  the  Mohammedans  call  it  "  Mooruh"  and  "Azeel 
Mooruh,"  which  is,  the  exceeding  noble  cock,  or  the  cock  that  fights  nobly. 

As  Game- 
f owl  they  are 
game.  They  are 
called  so  because 
they  are  em- 
phatically 
known  to  be  so, 
with  a  world- 
wide reputation 
as  such ;  a  reputa- 
tion rightly  and 
honorably  won, 
theirs  by  con- 
quest. Game 
ages  ago  and 
Game  to-day, 
not  called  so  for 
commercial  pur- 
poses, but  for 
their  steadfast, 
fiery  valor;  not 
for  their  beauty, 
which  is  great ; 
not  for  their 
strong,  well-knit 
frames ;  not  for 
dashing  attack, 
vigor,      and 

strength,  nor  for  their  varied  loveliness  of  color  and  beautiful  intricate 
markings,  nor  their  sturdy  make,  general  contour,  fierce  eye,  squared,  wedge- 
shaped  head  and  powerful  beak — no  !  Not  for  any  or  all  of  these  are  they 
Azeel  Indian  Game,  but  because  they  are  the  true,  the  high-class,  the 
blue  blood  of  Indian  bird  warriors,  the  veriest  Game  of  Game,  the  Indian 


'  hy  Harrison  Jf'ei 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME,    BIRMINGHAM,    iSsS 


The    Modern   Game-fowl  379 

Game,  and  the  only  proper  and  rightful  owners  of  the  well-earned 
appellation ;  pure  in  blood  and  pure  in  reputation,  theirs  is  a  world-wide 
fame.  Those  who  have  seen  them  in  India — birds  such  as  never  reach 
our  colder  land — have  told  of  their  prowess,  of  their  ungovernable, 
unwearying,  unconquerable  tenacity  in  battle;  with  them,  as  with  our 
English  Game  of  old,  it  has  ever  been — death  or  victory.  Such  are  the 
Indian  Game,  the  Azeel,  the  true,  noble,  thoroughbred — Game. 

Sir  John  Astley,  in  his  very  interesting  book,  "Fifty  Years  of  My 
Life,"  1894,  gives  valuable  information  on  many  things,  and  so,  respecting 
the  Indian  Game-fowl,  he  says  of  his  brother  that  "When  he  came  home 
he  brought  with  him  some  of  the  higher  type  of  Indian  Game-birds,  and 
I  was  surprised  to  learn  the  value  set  on  those  birds  by  the  native  sportsmen 
and  the  trouble  to  procure  and  land  them  in  this  country;  yet  some  of 
them  had  succumbed  on  the  homeward  journey.  I  noticed  one  black 
hen  particularly,  and  upon  asking  if  she  was  of  a  high-class  tribe,  was 
assured  she  was  the  very  top  of  the  pedigree  class,  and  that  no  money 
could  buy  her;  in  fact,  he  would  have  lost  caste  had  he  put  a  price  on  her 
in  particular,  when  he  had  been  offered  ;^2o  each  for  her  eggs."  She 
never  laid  in  England ;  but  Sir  John  Astley  states  she  returned  to 
India,  and  laid  on  board  the  ship,  and  he  dryly  adds,  "My  readers  will  be 
satisfied  that  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  set  a  price  on  such  a  bird." 

These  Indian  Game  have  a  wider,  fuller,  rounder  head  than  our 
English,  and  are  shorter  and  broader  in  the  back;  the  product  of  a  cross 
from  the  two  breeds  sometimes  turn  out  well,  but  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon  to  be  like  either — pure.  From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  how 
highly  the  natives  of  India  value  pedigree,  and  it  is  but  a  haphazard, 
unwise  proceeding  the  breeding  without  it;  whilst  with  it,  even  with  the 
greatest  care  in  the  matching,  disappointment  only  too  often  occurs; 
and  yet  it  is  saddening  to  hear  some  people,  ignorant  of  Nature's  laws, 
restlessly  advocating  a  cross,  a  breed  out  and  in,  after  which  they  can 
never  know,  nor  others  with  the  very  least  certainty,  what  can  or  will 
come  of  it.  Such  has  been  the  case  with  the  Azeel;  in  no  cross  has  it 
proved  a  success. 

A  friend  of  Mr.  Weir's  had  some  very  high-class  Indian  Game,  long 
in  pedigree,  from  Madras,  in  color  black  and  some  a  soft  blue,  and  yellow 
in  the  shanks;  and  although  he  was  a  fairly  good  ordinary  breeder  of 
poultry,  by  unscientific  matching  he  not  only  lost  the  beautiful  purity 


38o  The  Poultry  Book 

of  feather  coloring,  but  he  also  found  that  it  was  most  difficult — in  fact, 
almost  impossible,  to  retain  the  orange  yellow  of  the  shanks  and  feet; 
they  would  come  stained.  If  this  were  so  in  the  pure  breed,  what  would 
he  have  had  to  contend  with  had  he  crossed  "out  "  and  "in  "  ? 

Captain  Robert  BuUer  Young,  writing  to  Mr.  Weir  of  this  breed, 
says  that  "  The  ordinary  fighting-cock  of  India  is  very  different  from  what 
we  know  here  as  the  Azeel,  which,  from  what  I  gather,  is  of  the  highest 
class,  and  I  have  heard  it  termed  the  rajah's  Game-fowl." 

Of  the  ordinary  fighters  he  says:  "To  begin  with,  many  of  the 
cocks  are  hen-plumed — that  is  to  say,  an  absence  of  sickle  feathers,  having 
a  square  tail  and  scarcely  any  bright  feathers,  either  on  the  shoulder  or 
hackle,  with  a  fair  comb,  but  for  which  otherwise  it  might  pass  for  a 
hen."  "Here  is  another  proof,"  says  Mr.  Weir,  "that  our  Kennies  are 
distinct  breed,  and  possibly  originated  in  India,  as  our  fine  old  English 
Game  is  said  to  have  done  many  centuries  ago." 

In  color  the  Azeel  is  variable,  but  always  more  or  less  beautiful. 
Like  most  of  the  Indian  domestic  poultry  or  pigeons,  there  is  a  finished, 
refined,  almost  poetic,  touch  about  both  the  cocks  and  hens,  the  spanghng 
tints  being  generally  brightly  and  charmingly  arranged,  widely  dift'erent 
to  any  European  breed.  In  habit  they  are  peculiar,  being  wonderful 
scratchers,  almost  burying  themselves  in  the  deep  holes  so  made  in  their 
runs.  Mr.  Weir's  would  most  industriously  turn  over,  to  a  great  depth, 
all  the  available  ground  continually;  and  were  scarcely  contented,  if  ever 
so,  unless  they  were  digging  or  delving,  their  extra-strong  hmbs  and  feet 
making  the  process  a  light  matter  of  exercise,  though  presumably  they 
were  in  search  of  insect  life.  Again,  though  fierce  in  combat  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  both  sexes  were  unusually  tame,  allowing  themselves  to  be  caught 
up  and  put  down  as  desirable  at  his  will  or  pleasure;  they  would  feed 
from  his  hand,  and  perch  on  his  shoulder  in  the  most  trustful  way 
imaginable,  which  rendered  them  enjoyable  pets  to  keep. 

As  a  table  fowl  it  is  of  wonderful  shape,  the  breast  being  a  counterpart 
of  the  red  grouse,  or  between  that  and  the  partridge,  plump,  broad,  full, 
and  rounded ;  the  skin  is  thin,  and  the  flesh  very  fine  in  grain,  and  close, 
but  rather  dry  and  somewhat  hard,  for  the  reason  that  it  will  not  put  fat 
on  the  breast  nor  between  the  layers  of  the  muscles,  though  it  does  some- 
what about  the  thighs  and  legs;  the  bird,  however,  fattens  inwardly. 
One  cock  that  Mr.  Weir  had  was  very  fleshy,  particularly  so  on  the  breast, 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


381 


though  apparently  lean,  but  it  died  from  apoplexy,  when,  on  examination, 
the  inside  was  found  to  be — to  use  a  common  expression — one  mass  of  fat. 
If  the  breed  could  be  got  to  assimilate  more  fat  on  the  breast,  it  would  be 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  table  fowls  that  we  have.  Grouse-breasted 
to  a  degree,  it,  like  the  grouse,  is  thin — lean. 


BLACK-BREASTED    BLACK    RED    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME 
Owned  by  Mr.  John  Harris 


'•  CROW    ALLEY 


382 


The    Poultry    Book 


What  power  there  is  in  the  short,  thick,  bony,  straight  shanks,  covered 
as  they  are  with  stout,  large  scales  !  What  strength  in  the  feet,  with 
their  strong,  thick-made  toes,  horn -tipped  with  stout,  curvicular  nails, 
all-powerful  for  attack,  defense  or  scraping ;  the  thighs  hard  and  muscular, 

well  apart,  and  sparsely  feathered; 
the  head  broad  and  thick;  beak 
strong,  stout,  and  well  set  on, 
slightly  curving  from  a  triple  pea 
comb  to  the  point ;  eyes  deepset, 
yet  in  themselves  bold  and 
prominent,  pearl-colored,  pink- 
cornered;  face  glowing  purplish 
red,  slightly  beset  at  the  sides  with 
bristles ;  deaf,  or  earlobe  small  and 
hard;  wattles  small,  both  red; 
point  of  breast  naked  and  red; 
shoulders  broad,  stern  narrow, 
making  the  body  almost  trian- 
gular; wings  very  strong,  w^ell  out 
at  the  butts  or  shoulders,  carried 
level,  showing  the  big  first  joint 
bare;  neck  round,  powerful  and 
medium  length,  if  anything  rather 
short  than  long,  rising  curved  or 
bending  in  the  ele^^ation;  tail 
carried  low,  fiat,  the  feathers 
narrow  and  hard,  w4th  slender 
sickle  feathers,  thin  and  sharp  in 
point,  but  wiry  in  substance ;  tail- 
covert  fine,  evenly  laid  on,  close, 
firm,  and  compact — that  of  the  hen 
a  little  short,  but  not  too  much  so,  carried  low,  and  tapering ;  oil  the  plumage 
hard,  almost  scaly,  yet  feathery,  but  devoid  of  fluff;  body  heavy  for  its 
size,  well-boned,  close  in  texture,  and  strong;  the  carriage  somewhat 
upright,  but  runs  with  a  stooping  gait;  general  appearance  combative 
and  dauntless,  moving  quickly  and  fearlessly.  Fortunately,  there  is  no 
standard  for  color,  nor  should  there  be,  so  many  of  our  best  breeds  being 


MODERN    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME-COCK 
A  great  winner — cut  out  for  fighting.     This  cock  won  at  Lille  a  few 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


383 


OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    HEN — PRIZE    PARTRIDGE 
Bred  and  owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


more  or  less  sacrificed  to  a  slavish  craving  for  certain  colors  to  the  exclusion 
of  others,  often  quite  as  beautiful,  and  in  the  opinion  of  some  more  so. 
The  so-called  colored  Dorking  is  a  notable  example  of  this,  the  dark  and 
silver-grays  now  only  obtaining  notice,  while  the  black-breasted  reds,  the 


384  The    Poultry    Book 

golds,  the  spangles,  and  the  speckles  are  entirely  neglected  ;  therefore, 
well  is  it  for  a  breed  that  it  not  tied  to  color  as  a  point  for  or  against. 
In  this  matter  the  Azeels  are  preeminently  beautiful,  the  formation  of 
the  feathers  lending  an  additional  charm  to  the  various  blendings.  The 
white,  with  an  undertint  of  lilac-gray,  yellow  shanks  and  beak,  and  silvery 
eye,  being  one  among  the  most  approved.  The  black  has  its  admirers, 
and  what  a  black  it  is  !  How  brilHant  !  rich  bronzy  and  purplish, 
with  an  iridescent  emerald-green,  flashing  to  every  movement  of  the 
bird.  Then  the  self-colored  blood-reds,  with  black  hackles,  and  these, 
with  a  delicate  black  lacing,  now  claimed  as  a  property  of  an  alien 
variety  of  fowl.  Spangles  and  splashes,  and  almond-tinted  tans  almost 
complete,  but  do  not  exhaust,  the  list  of  the  varied  featherings  and 
colorings  of  these  rajah-treasured  fowls. 

Profitable  poultry  they  are  not;  as  charming  and  delightful  pets  or 
hobbies,  saving  and  except  the  old  English  Game  and  some  few  others, 
and  these  very  few,  they  have  no  peer.  True,  on  account  of  their  courage 
they  are  somewhat  difficult  to  keep,  the  hens  even  having  their  likes  and 
dislikes,  mostly  the  latter;  as  a  consequence,  these  end  sometimes  in  the 
death  of  one  or  the  other,  or  the  temporary  maiming  or  disfiguration  of 
both,  such  being  especially  the  case  on  the  introduction  of  a  stranger. 
This  may  be  partly  remedied  by  cooping  the  newcomer  within  sight  of 
the  other  fowls  for  a  few  days.  They  are  by  no  means  prolific  breeders, 
laying  but  few  eggs  as  a  rule,  but  there  is  much  difference  in  this  respect ; 
they  are  good  and  close  sitters,  excellent  mothers,  defending  their  little 
ones  with  the  utmost  audacity  and  fearlessness.  The  chickens  require 
some  attention  for  the  first  week  or  two,  after  which  they  shift  for 
themselves  in  the  same  way  as  our  English  Game-fowl ;  they  grow 
slowly,  feather  well,  but  require  a  dry  situation,  well-protected  from 
cold  winds.  The  eggs  are  small,  of  a  dull  light-brown,  and  the  shells 
are  generally  thick. 

A  cock  of  this  breed,  mated  with  a  lightly  feathered-shanked  Shanghai 
hen  or  hens,  will  produce  some  excellent  table  fowls,  very  hardy,  and 
easily  fattened,  the  flesh  thereby  being  rendered  rich  and  delicious  in 
flavor.  Though  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  very  hardy,  still  in  some  localities 
and  on  certain  soils  they  thrive;  and  where  such  is  the  case,  they  prove 
not  only  an  interesting  but,  being  so  different  in  most  ways  from  others, 
a  very  enjoyable  breed  to  keep. 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


38s 


The  Malay 

This  is  one  of  the  best  known,  though  of  doubtful  origin,  of  all  the 
domesticated  Indian  birds ;  it  is  more  or  less  the  Indian  Game-cock,  vary- 
ing in  size,  color,  and  habits  as  it  does,  from  the  high-bred  Azeel  to  Gallus 
gigantiis.  Mr.  Weir  has  shown  that  the  old  fighting  shake-bag  was  in  some 
instances  probably  partly,  if  not  wholly,  what  is  generally  termed  a  Malay, 
the  name  comprehending  a  large  family  of  bony,  tall,  sparse,  hard- 
feathered,  variously 
colored  fowls. 

Any  tall,  large,  tight- 
feathered  fowl  without 
wattles,  with  either  a 
knob,  lump,  or  thick-made 
pea-comb,  is  at  once  called 
a  Malay  or  Kulm  fowl, 
though  the  variations  in 
these  are  numerous.  Con- 
sequently, those  wishing 
to  gain  prizes  at  any  of 
our  poultry  shows  must 
breed  them  to  certain 
forms ,  colors,  and 
standard. 

Although  long  known 
in  England,  and  probably 
used  in  fighting,  we  have 
no    drawing     or    picture 

of  one  antecedent  to  that  given  in  Rees'  "Cyclopaedia"  since  1810.  In 
this  one  sees  at  once  the  Malay  in  England  at  the  time,  and 
with  its  peculiar  form  and  flowing  tail  there  was  but  little  difference 
between  them  and  those  shown  in  the  early  fifties.  Marsden  observes 
of  the  St.  Jago  cock  "that  this  bird  is  so  tall  as  to  enable  it  to 
pick  grain  off  a  common  dining-table,  and  that  it  has  the  habit  when 
fatigued  of  resting  its  body  on  the  hock  or  hind  part  of  its  legs, 
and  in  this  state  is  taller  than  the  common  fowl."  Latham  adds, 
"we  have  not  been  fortunate  enough  to  see  this  bird,  but  that  it  must 


IRCHEN    YELLOW,    1 792 


386 


The    Poultry    Book 


be  a  giant  of  its  race  can  easily  be  imagined  from  the  figure  of  a  leg  of 
the  natural  size  sent  to  Mr.  Temminck  from  Batavia,  at  the  back  of  which 
is  a  tremendous  spur,  two  inches  in  length,  and  stout  in  proportion." 
Here  we  have  the  habit  and  leg-bone  of  the  Fancier's  Malay. 

"Lieutenant-Colonel   Sykes,   in  his   'Memoir  of   Birds  found   in  the 
Dukan  (Deccan)  States,'  states  that    it    is    only    there    met    with  as    a 


'm 


>^3X- 


^■^^^^ 


MR.    ASTLEY  S    PRIZE     AND    CUP    OLD     ENGLISH    GAME    WHEATEN    PULLE'l 


The    Modern   Game-fowl  387 

domestic  bird,  and  that  he  has  reason  to  beHeve  that  it  is  not  a  native 
of  India,  but  was  introduced  by  the  Mussulmans  from  Sumatra  or  Java. 
The  iris,  he  says,  of  the  real  Game  bird  should  be  whitish  or  straw  color." 
(This  is  the  same,  or  nearly  so,  of  the  Azeel,  and  some  strains  of  the  old 
English  Game,  and  is  also  the  not  unusual  color  of  the  eye  of  some  of 
the  imported  fowls  called  Langshans.)  "The  Colonel  landed  two  cocks 
and  a  hen  in  England  in  June,  183 1,  and  they  bore  the  winter  well;  the 
hen  laid  freely,  and  by  September,  1832,  had  reared  two  broods  of  chickens. 

"The  cock  had  not  the  shrill  pipe  of  the  domestic  bird,  and  his  scale 
of  notes  appeared  to  be  more  limited.  A  cock  in  the  Colonel's  possession 
stood  twenty-six  inches  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  but  was  said  to  attain 
a  greater  height.  The  length,  from  the  tip  of  the  beak  to  the  insertion 
of  the  tail,  was  twenty-three  inches.  Hen  one-third  smaller  in  size  than 
the  male."     (Zoological  Society  Proceedings,   1832.) 

Jardine's  notes,  with  some  additions,  give  a  true  picture  of  the  Malay 
as  known  here :  "It  often  stands  more  than  two  feet  high  from  the  crown 
of  the  head  to  the  ground.  The  comb  extends  backward  in  a  line  with 
the  eyes;  it  is  thick,  a  little  elevated  and  rounded  at  the  top,  and  has 
almost  the  appearance  of  being  cut  ofT.  The  wattles  of  the  under 
mandible  are  comparatively  small,  and  the  throat  is  bare.  Pale  goldish- 
reddish  hackles  ornament  the  head  and  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  back, 
and  some  of  these  spiny ;  from  the  bare  part  of  the  throat,  middle  of  the 
back  and  lesser  wing-coverts  deep  chromes;  the  webs  of  the  feathers 
are  disunited.  Pale  reddish-yellow,  long  drooping  hackles  cover  the 
rump  and  base  of  the  tail,  w^hich  last  is  very  ample  and  entirely  of  a  glossy 
green"  (this  description  by  Sir  William  Jardine  shows  the  bird  before 
the  modern  innovation  and  peculiar  fancy  of  lessening  the  tails  of  all 
our  domestic  fowls,  and  thus  much  of  the  green  is  lost  as  well  as  the  utility 
of  the  tail),  "of  which  color  are  the  wing-coverts;  the  secondaries  and 
quills  are  a  pale  reddish -yellow  on  their  outer  webs;  all  the  under  parts 
deep  black  and  glossy  green,  with  high  reflection.  The  rich  chestnut 
of  the  base  of  the  feathers  appears  occasionally,  and  gives  a  mottled 
appearance  to  these  parts."  Such  was  the  description,  and  from  this 
even  as  far  back  as  the  teens  of  the  last  century  there  were  numerous 
variations,  such  as  the  tufted,  the  whiskered,  and  bearded  (as  now), 
besides  that  of  form  and  habit. 

The  following  letter  from  Singapore,  November  12,  1823,  Straits  of 


388 


The    Poultry    Book 


Malacca,  by  Beruga  Ayam  Saborg,  is  of  especial  interest,  throwing  light, 
as  it  does,  upon  the  whiskered  Malay,  etc.,  and  perhaps  on  our  English 
muffled  Game,  and  more  on  the  Azeel:  ".  .  .  having  frequently 
read  notices  relative  to  the  Malay  and  Chittagong  crosses  which  appear 
to  me  to  be  erroneous,  as  the  writers  proceed  on  wrong  data.     One  writer 


BLACK-BREASTED    LIGHT-ORANGE    DUCKWING    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCKEREL 
Owned  and  bred  by  Mr.  Weir 


complains  of  the  muffly  heads,  another  of  the  great  weight  and  clumsiness 
of  the  Malay  Game-cocks,  which  when  well  bred  have  very  seldom  indeed 
any  top-knot,  and  seldom  weigh  more  than  four  pounds.  The  Jungle 
cock,  which  inhabits  many  of  the  islands  in  the  Eastern  seas,  is  a  perfect 
Game-cock,  high  on  the  leg,  light  fleshed,  hard  feathers,  a  fine  eye,  and 
the  most  beautiful  plumage  conceivable — in  fact,  a  perfect  Game-cock, 


Photograph  by  Walter  Gardiner,  Worthing 


AMERICAN    EDITION 


VERY  person  in  this  country  who  has  given  the  subject  of 
poultry  serious  study,  either  as  a  professional  or  an  amateur, 
is  familiar  with  the  writings  of  the  venerable  and  highly 
esteemed  English  writer,  Mr.  Harrison  Weir.  It  is  a  great 
satisfaction  to  all  lovers  of  poultry  to  know  that  the  results 
of  his  observations  and  personal  experiences,  covering  more 
than  half  a  century,  have  been  preserved  in  the  present  volume.  In  very 
few  instances  do  we  find  so  keen  an  observer  and  such  a  close  student  of 
Nature  the  possessor  of  such  rare  artistic  ability.  The  work  is  therefore 
all  the  more  valuable,  containing  as  it  does  his  sketches  and  drawings,  and 
it  will  remain  a  standard  in  its  class  of  literature. 

The  poultry  industry  in  America  has  been  one  of  gradual  develop- 
ment. On  account  of  peculiar  conditions,  the  methods  in  vogue  here 
differ  considerably  from  those  followed  in  England.  Therefore,  to  make 
this  work  of  more  peculiar  interest  and  value  to  American  breeders,  each 
part  has  been  thoroughly  revised  and,  in  some  instances,  entirely  rewritten, 
by  an  expert  American  authority. 

The  insertion  of  photographs  and  drawings  representing  typical  fowls 
from  an  American  point  of  view  adds  to  the  great  value  of  the  work  as 
one  of  reference.  In  fact,  it  constitutes,  in  its  present  form,  a  standard 
for  all  lovers  of  poultry.  In  each  instance  the  name  of  the  authority  is 
printed  at  the  head  of  the  chapter,  and  he  alone  is  held  responsible  for  the 
comments  and  revision.  Where  no  individual  credit  is  given,  the  editor 
is  authority  for  any  changes  in  the  original  English  edition. 

Willis   Grant  Johnson. 
New  York  City,  May  i,  1903. 


The    Modern   Game-fowl  389 

This  bird  I  look  upon  as  the  father  of  the  true-bred  Game-fowls.  The 
Malays  frequently  secure  their  eggs,  hatch  and  bring  them  up,  or  put 
them  in  the  way  of  Jungle  cocks. 

"  The  English  Game-cock  has  no  doubt  reached  the  acme  of  perfection, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  Malay  birds  are  equal  in  blood,  as  perfect,  and 
even  deeper  Game  of  the  two.  The  Chittagongs  cannot  be  called  Game; 
they  are  large,  heavy,  and  out  of  all  repute  as  Game.  It  appears  to  me 
very  odd  indeed  how  good  Game-cocks  (Malay)  could  have  been  seen  in 
England.  The  only  places  which  Englishmen,  and  more  particularly 
captains  of  ships,  are  in  the  habit  of  visiting,  are  Pulo  Perring  or  P.W. 
Island,  the  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  ]\Ialacca,  once  or  twice  a  year  to  the 
west  of  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  and  the  island  of  Java.  Now  one  thing  is 
clear,  they  have  no  cocking  either  in  Java  or  P.W.  Island,  consequently 
no  good  cocks.  On  the  west  coast  there  are  some,  but  not  what  the  captains 
of  ships  would  get  by  asking  for  {i.  e.,  if  good).  The  majority  of  importa- 
tions have  been  most  probably  made  by  men  who  scarcely  knew  a  cock 
from  a  goose,  often  bought  in  the  bazaar  or  market-place,  where  good 
Game  are  not  to  be  procured,  for  they  are  never  exposed  for  sale  if  worth 
having.  I  have  myself  seen  worthless  dunghill  cocks  sent  to  England  as 
fine  savage  Game-cocks;  by  this  means  no  doubt  their  credit  is  sullied, 
and  that  muffly  heads,  top-knots,  clumsiness,  dark  skins,  etc.,  are  raked 
up  against  them ;  but  it  certainly  arises  more  from  the  kind  of  bird  called 
in  England  a  Malay  Game-cock  than  from  the  actual  bird  itself." 

It  appears  from  Mr.  Saborg's  letter  that  the  high-class  Malay  is  small, 
and  is  most  likely  the  one  we  now  term  Azeel;  and  this  view  is  borne  out 
by  the  opinion  of  others,  who  put  the  lesser  bird  as  the  one  of  the  highest 
class.     Yet,  nevertheless,  the  larger  is  the  one  known  as  the  Malay,  and 

ithe  Azeel  is  of  later  importation;  and  though  of  fine  quality  in  all 
respects,  still  there  are  lovers  of  the  old  Kulm  or  Malay — the  Giant. 
The  wings  of  the  Malay  should  be  long  and  carried  high,  almost 
touching  over  the  back,  with  powerful  shoulders,  and  be  large  in  girth, 
breast-bone  somewhat  long  with  strong-made  keel;  the  breast  meat  hard, 
muscular,  and  well-developed,  flesh  firm  in  grain  but  rather  inclined  to  be 
dry,  as  the  Malay  does  not  fatten  well  on  the  breast,  the  angle  part  of 
which  generally  shows  red  in  flesh  between  the  feathers.  Captain  Robert 
Buller  Young  informed  Mr.  Weir  that  the  ordinary  fighting-cocks  of  India 


390  The    Poultry    Book 

distinct  from  the  Azeel,  and  that  pointed  steel  tips,  or  blade  spurs,  are 
used  in  the  fighting.  The  natives  of  Java  and  the  Malayan  Archipelago 
are  the  most  noted  cock-fighters  of  all  the  Asiatics.  The  Malay  is  in  India 
called  the  Galium  or  Kulm  fowl.  The  number  of  Malays  that  are  continually 
imported  from  India,  Mauritius,  the  Philippines,  and  other  places,  of 
varied  forms  and  colors,  give  a  wide  opportunity  of  selection ;  thus  it  is 
that  some  are  exceedingly  tall,  while  others  are  lower  and  more  square 
in  body,  more  sturdy,  and  much  less  liable  to  leg  weakness. 

The  Malays  now  exhibited  are  in  no  way  superior  to  those  of  half  a 
century  ago ;  some  perhaps  may  be  a  little  taller,  one  being  said  to  be  over 
thirty-three  inches,  but  whether  this  is  an  improvement  is  a  matter  of 
taste  and  opinion ;  for  utility,  the  shorter-legged  birds  are  the  more  hardy 
and  in  all  ways  more  preferable.  These  and  the  so-called  Cornish  Indian 
are  almost  identical  excepting  in  color,  the  latter  being  formerly  known 
as  Pheasant  Malays.  The  Malay  is  a  cruel,  long,  and  persistent  fighter, 
but  lacking  entirely  the  fire  and  dash  of  the  English  Game-cock;  there  is 
a  sort  of  cool,  old  hidalgo,  stately  mode  about  him  that  is  not  found  in 
other  Game  birds,  and  this  renders  such  as  he  a  troublesome  adjunct  to 
a  farmyard  where  other  cocks  are  kept. 

In  the  Gentleman  s  Magazine,  as  far  back  as  1770,  it  is  stated  that  "The 
inhabitants  of  the  islands  to  the  eastward  of  Bengal,  such  as  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  and  the  coast  of  Malay,  are  very  famous  for  cock-fighting,  in  which 
they  carry  gaming  to  a  greater  excess  than  the  customs  of  Europe  can 
admit.  They  first  stake  their  property  on  the  battles ;  these  lost,  then 
their  money  and  effects;  these  gone,  then  their  wives  and  children." 

In  Sumatra  they  do  not  trim  their  cocks  for  fighting,  as  was  the  practice 
in  England  and  is  now  in  America,  Spain,  France,  and  Belgium.  At 
^Manilla,  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  cock-fighting  is  regulated  by  law,  and 
has  been  taxed  since  1779.  It  is  only  permitted,  under  a  code  of  regulations, 
on  Sundays  and  Feast  days,  at  places  officially  designated  for  the  meet  of 
the  combatants.  The  cock-pit  is  called  the  "gallera,"  and  the  tax  is 
rented  out  to  the  highest-bidding  contractor,  who  binds  himself  to  pay 
a  fixed  sum  per  annum.     The  laws  of  the  cock-pit  are  very  strict. 

In  the  French  colony  of  Martinique  cock-fighting  is  still  a  national 
sport,  which  usually  takes  place  on  Sundays.  ]\Ialay  cocks  are  used, 
and  they  fight  with  their  natural  spurs,  which  are  sharpened  for  the  purpose 
by  the  setters,  who  suck  the  spurs  afterwards  to  show  that  they  are  not 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


391 


poisoned;  the  plumage  is  then  ruffled,  the  Hmbs  are  moistened  by  passing 
them  along  the  setter's  open  mouth,  and  the  birds  are  then  put  down 


^^^^^^Jfl!  %^ 

'''^       "^'-.A^f" 

W  i,-.  f~-  ^     '"> 

ZT     --■■'-'  ;/"1^- 

Bypermissioi 

•I  0/  the  prof  rieto 

CUSTARD    DUCKWING    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME,     I 

:853 

0«nedby  Mr.  Thurnall 

for  combat.  The  Malays  fight  their  cocks  with  only  one  spur.  It  is  like 
the  blade  of  a  penknife,  only  more  curved.  Sometimes,  but  seldom, 
artificial  spurs  made  of  horn  are  used. 

There  are  white  Malays  or  Game  in  India — pure  white,  white  beaks, 
shanks  and  feet,  with  pearl  eyes;  but  they  have  not  been  imported,  those 
m  England  having  yellow  skin,  shanks  and  feet,  with  the  lightest  of  a 
light  primrose  tint  pervading  the  plumage. 

As  layers  they  are  not  good,  the  eggs  generally  being  small  and  of  a 
dull  color.  Their  numbers  are  few,  besides  which  they  lay  only  during 
the  spring  and  summer  months.  On  dry  soil  the  Malay  thri\es.  It  can 
he  bred  and  kept  like  the  Azeel  in  small  enclosures,  even  m  the  heart  of 
towns.  The  chickens  are  hardy  but  slow  in  feathering,  and  require  warm.th 
also  when  moulting,  as  much  as  good  feeding,   the  thin  skm  and  lean 


392  The    Poultry    Book 

breasts  not  producing  oleaginous  matter  and  other  requirements  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  give  the  necessary  moisture  for  the  proper  feather  growth. 
After  the  chicks  have  their  heads  covered  all  goes  well,  but  both  the 
young  and  old  are  subject  to  leg  weakness,  especially  in  cold  or  wet  weather. 
One  noticeable  peculiarity  is  their  manner  of  resting  on  their  hocks  (heels) 
and  shanks,  the  body  being  somewhat  upright;  but  this  is  the  habit  of 
most  long-thighed,  long-legged  and  long-shanked  fowls,  as  witness  the 
modem  or  Club  Langshan.  Whether  the  Malay  proper  will  ever  regain 
its  former  position  in  public  favor  is  a  moot  point,  although  an  offshoot 
under  the  appellation  of  the  Cornish  Indian  is  held  by  some — at  least,  for 
the  present— in  considerable  estimation ;  but  how  long  this  will  be  so  only 
time  can  determine. 

The  Indian  Chittagong 

Is  what  might  be  generally  termed  the  Indian  barn-door  fowl,  being 
a  mixed  kind  and  of  various  sizes,  forms,  and  colors,  some  partaking 
of  the  Azeel  character,  others  of  a  Malay  cross  with  a  sem.i-Dorking 
appearance.  Captain  G.  Duller  Young's  experience  with  the  Chittagong 
is  as  follows: 

"During  the  latter  part  of  the  sixties  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
seventies  I  was  stationed  at  Point  de  Galle  in  Ceylon,  then  a  garrison 
town  and  the  main  port  of  all  our  mail  steamers,  and  a  calling  port  for 
vessels  from  many  parts  of  the  world,  being  a  coaling  station  as  well. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  I  gained  my  knowledge  of  the  Chittagong 
fowls.  They  used  to  be  brought  over  in  the  native  rice-laden  vessels 
and  allowed  to  run  loose  between  the  decks  on  the  bags  of  rice ;  conse- 
quently they  landed  in  Galle  quite  fat,  and  in  such  quantities  that  they 
were  hawked  from  door  to  door,  and  also  brought  to  the  port,  so  that  I 
had  many  opportunities  of  purchase.  The  fattest  and  biggest  cost 
one  shilling  or  eighteen  pence  each,  the  cheaper  ones  being  bought  by 
the  dozen. 

'  ■  The  Chittagong  is  a  mongrel  breed  of  fowls  that  have  been  perpetuated 
m  the  locality  of  Chittagong  and  the  surrounding  districts  for  generations, 
possibly  from  the  fact  that  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mussulmans; 
though,  with  the  upper  classes  of  the  Hindoo  fowls,  are  an  abomination, 
and   the  rearing  of  them  studiously  avoided. 

"The  Chittagong  is  of  various  colors,  much  the  same  in  this  respect 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


393 


as  the  English  barn-door  fowls,  and  in  size  would  compare  with  a  small 
Dorking  or  Leghorn.  The  combs  of  the  cocks  vary  in  size  and  shape; 
there  is  the  single  erect  comb,  the  'rose,'  and  the  short  stump  like  the 
Malay,  with  rather  full  but  small  wattles.  The  crow  of  the  male  bird 
resembles  that  of  the  English,  but  is  shorter ;  the  hen  cackles  when  she  lays 
eggs;  in  color  the  eggs  of  larger  kinds  are  of  a  dark  smoky-brown,  with  a 


ILUE-BREASTED    DUN    OLD    ENGLISH    GAME    COCKEREL 


most  beautiful  plum-like  bloom  when  just  laid.     The  chicks  are  rather 
slow  in  feathering  for  about  the  first  six  weeks,  especially  on  the  shoulders 


394 


The    Poultry    Book 


OLD    ENGLISH    BLUE-BREASTED    BLUE    GAME   COCKEREL 

Aquarium  Fishery  Show,  1892 

and  rump;  the  young  cockerels  are  pugnacious  and  fight  courageously, 

often  until  blinded.  ,      t       f  tho 

"One  curious  complaint  from  which  these  and  other  fowls  of  the 

East  sufler  is  smallpox."      (This  is  rare  in  England  )     "The  adult  birds 


The    Modern    Game-fowl  395 

are  fully,  not  to  say  abundantly,  plumed,  and  the  more  scanty  the  feathers 
on  the  growing  chick  the  stronger  the  assumption  that  it  will  be  a  big 
fowl — '  budda  Murghi, '  in  Hindustani. 

"  The  hens  are  not  prolific,  usually  laying  between  eighteen  and  twenty- 
five  eggs;  and  it  is  the  native  belief  that  if  untouched  by  hand  they  will 
produce  about  the  same  number  of  chickens,  with  rarely  more  than  two  or 
three  failures.  But  it  is  always  better  to  set  the  eggs  of  a  w^ell-developed 
and  matured  hen  than  the  first  eggs  of  a  young  pullet ;  in  point  of  fact, 
in  the  East  this  is  an  invariable  rule,  and  I  can  from  actual  experience 
prove  the  correctness  of  the  surmise.  Taking  the  Chittagong  as  an  '  all- 
round'  bird,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  it  one  of  the  hardiest  and 
most  easily  reared  of  any  in  India.  It  is  quite  a  poor  man's  fowl  as  well. 
The  expense  of  production  is  small,  and  if  properly  looked  after  the 
profit  is  considerable. 

"The  Chittagong  is  a  clean-shanked  fowl,  having  no  shank  feathers. 
As  to  size,  there  is  as  much  difference  between  the  true  Malay  and  a  Chitta- 
gong in  height,  etc.,  as  there  is  between  a  Dorking  and  a  Bantam,  the 
Chittagong  being  nothing  of  the  size  of  the  Malay  in  bulk  or  height." 

The  Australian  Game-fowl 

This  is  another  variation  of  the  Game  or  fighting  type  of  fowls.  With 
all  poultry,  the  cocks  more  or  less  have  a  combative  propensity,  some 
to  the  death  of  one  or  occasionally  that  of  both,  while  with  others  there  is 
knowledge  of  when  they  have  had  enough,  and  they  suddenly  end  the  battle 
by  a  somewhat  hasty  retreat,  perhaps  being  possessed  with  the  idea  that 
discretion  is  the  better  part  of  valor;  but  no  craven  is  respected,  or  should 
be,  and  thus  it  is  that  the  warrior  tribes  of  our  poultry,  both  by  their 
daring  and  courage,  as  well  as  their  high  and  lofty  mien  and  generally 
acknowledged  beauty,  are  considered  not  only  to  be  the  blue  blood,  as  it 
were,  but  rank  as  much  above  the  common  as  the  racer  does  above  the 
slow,  slaving  cart  horse.  Thus  it  is  that  the  Australian  Game -fowl, 
though  a  new  combination,  already  has  many  friends. 

"The  origin  of  this  fowl,"  says  a  writer  in  the  American  Fancier  of 
September  8,  1897,  "rests  solely  with  the  Malay  and  the  old-style  British 
Game -fowl,  but  being  bred  to  an  ideal  for  so  many  years  it  has  now  become 
a  definitely  fixed  breed,  often  being  exhibited  of  immense  size  (it  is  a 
common  occurrence  for  cocks  to  scale  twelve  pounds,  hens  ten  pounds). 


396 


The    Poultry    Book 


As  a  table  fowl  they  are,   par  excellence,  of  extraordinary  hardy  consti- 
tutions,   easily   reared,    and   thoroughly   suitable   to   our   trying   climate 

(Australia),  with  beautiful 
hard,  short,  lustrous  plumage, 
and  possessing  great  physical 
beauty.  They  combine  the 
great  reach,  strength  and  size 
of  the  best  Malay  with  the 
magnificent  plumage  of  the 
old-fashioned  G  a  m  e  -  f  o  w  1  ; 
however,  not  being  nearly  so 
coarse-looking  or  angular  as 
the  former,  nor  nearly  so 
feathery  as  the  latter,  they 
find  great  favor  on  all  sides 
for  their  economic  qualities, 
which  are  of  a  very  high  order. ' ' 
Mr.  Weir  says  he  can 
offer  no  opinion  further  than 
that  in  England,  both  in  the 
past  and  the  present,  the 
]\Ialay  pure  and  simple  has 
not  been  thought  a  desirable 
cross  with  the  old  English 
Game.  When  such  has  been 
tried,  it  has  generally  proved 
to  the  disadvantage  of  both 
breeds,  being  from  its  size  a 
shake-bag  of  an  inferior 
quality  in  all  respects.  Still, 
the  hearsay  reports,  as  well 
as  those  from  actual  observation,  are  highly  favorable  to  the  new 
comer;  and  judging  from  these  there  appears  to  be  a  brilliant  future 
for  the  new-made  breed  by  the  poultry  fanciers.  Daily  we  are  told 
that  the  gallant  beauties  are  becoming  more  beautiful  and  perfect, 
and  their  coloring  brighter,  their  forms  more  compact  and  shapely; 
that  they  breed  truer  and  more  true,  and  they  may  now  be  fully  considered 


CROSS    BETWEEN    MODERN    GAME    AND    OLD 

ENGLISH    GAME 

Owned  by  Mr.  Flecher  Moss 


The    Modern   Game-fowl 


397 


to  have  maintained  if  not  surpassed  their  newly  acquired  fame,  and 
thus  among  the  many  of  our  poultry  varieties  have  established  a  right 
to  recognition. 

Cornish  Indian,  Miscalled  Game 

This  breed  is  said  to  have  been  first  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
and  elsewhere  in  1858-59  in  the  classes  for  "  any  other  breed,"  and  at  once 
attracted  attention, 
besides  being  the 
winners  of  prizes  and 
commendations.  Later, 
at  another  Crystal 
Palace  Show,  Mr.  Weir 
handled  a  cock  and  hen 
both  surprisingly  heavy, 
considering  their  size 
and  appearance.  One 
old  poultry  breeder 
remarked  that  they  had 
so  much  meat  on  their 
backs  as  to  be  what 
he  should  call  "double- 
breasted."  These  were 
shorter  in  the  leg  and 
shank  than  the  present 
miscalled  Indian  Game 
—  more  square  and 
compact.  Here  is  a 
description  given  at  the 
time  by  Mr.  J.  Lloyd: 
"Their  peculiarities 
consist  in  the  tail  being 
set  on  in  a  horizontal 
position  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the 
pheasant's,  so  that  the 

saddle  hackles  fall  over  and  mix  with  it,  this  fowl  being  the  only  one  I  know 
that  is  unable  to  elevate  its  tail.     The  feathers  on  the  head  have  all  the 


MODERN    GAME    HEN 


398  The    Poultry    Book 

appearance  of  being  brushed  up  so  as  to  meet  at  the  crown.  The  comb  is 
something  similar  to  the  pea  of  the  Brahmas,  but  more  elevated  behind.  In 
color  the  cock  is  a  mixture  of  green,  black,  and  dark  red ;  the  hen  is  rather 
of  a  browner  tint;  both  have  a  strong  metallic  lustre."  Mr.  Lloyd  further 
notes  its  pheasant-like  ways  and  mode  of  action.  Evidently  they  partake 
more  of  the  character  of  those  known  a%  the  Azeel.  The  birds  exhibited 
were  decidedly  more  like  Azeel  than  the  Cornish-bred  Indian  of  the  present 
time,  which  often  resembles  the  Malay  so  closely  that  one  of  each  breed 
might  easily  be  picked  out  of  the  same  brood,  yard,  or  run.  In  fact, 
cases  have  been  known  where  birds  from  one  brood  have  been  sent  for 
exhibition  in  separate  pens  from  the  same  breeder,  and  have  won  both  in 
the  Malay  and  the  Cornish-Indian  classes. 

There  is  little  doubt,  if  any,  in  the  mind  of  Mr.  Weir  that  the  present 
form  of  bird  emanated  from  a  cross  between  the  Pheasant  Malay  and  the 
pheasant-breasted  old  English  Game,  or  the  latter  w4th  a  pure  Malay. 
He  has  seen  them  pure  black  with  orange  shanks  and  beak,  and  of  an 
orange-colored  ground,  marked  on  the  breast  and  sides  with  black  precisely 
of  the  same  half -moon  form  as  the  pheasant's,  as  was  the  old  Pheasant 
fowl  and  the  pheasant  Game.  Of  the  same  clutch  of  chickens  have  come 
cockerels  of  a  bright  blood-red  with  black  tails,  while  the  pullets  were  of 
the  same  deep  red  with  black  hackles  and  tails.  In  both  cases  the  shanks 
and  beak  were  yellow,  while  others  were  of  a  deep  red  or  bay  color,  with 
laced  markings  with  an  inner  lacing;  but  these  are  not  nearl}^  so  bright  in 
appearance  as  the  single-laced  variety,  though  the  last,  for  the  present, 
is  preferred  by  the  fancier. 

On  damp  ground  Mr.  Weir  has  found  them  to  be  delicate,  subject 
to  leg  weakness,  and  inclined  to  colds.  Some  are  said  to  be  fairly  good 
layers ;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  Azeels  and  Malays,  they  are  nearly 
if  not  quite  the  worst  domestic  fowls  for  ordinary  use.  In  size  and  color 
the  eggs  closely  resemble  those  of  the  ]\Ialay. 

For  a  considerable  period  the  breed  was  generally  known  as  the  Pheas- 
ant Malay.  At  the  Crystal  Palace  Show  in  1896  the  Malay  and  the  Indian 
Game  classes  adjoined.  In  the  pens  next  to  each  other  stood  a  cockerel  of 
each  said-to-be-distinct  breed.  One  of  the  best  fanciers  of  the  day,  consid- 
ered one  of  the  keenest  and  most  unbiassed  observers,  looking  tov/ard  them 
said,  quietly,  "Which  is  which?"  They  have  the  leg  weakness  pecuHar 
to  the  Malay,  and  the  long  shank  and  "the  big  bone"  which  so  many 


The    Modern    Game-fowl 


399 


GAME-FOWL    DURTN-G   THE   TRANSTTION   PERIOD 

now  insist  on  having.  The  points  of  difference,  then,  between  them  and 
the  Malay  have  been  mainly  in  the  coloring  and  markings,  but  these 
existed  when  ihey  were  the  Pheasant  Malay  in  an  appreciable  degree.  Had 
this  name  been  retained,  little  could  or  need  have  been  said  as  to  their 
nomenclatuie.     But  to  call  them   Indian  Game  is  a  misnomer.     It  is 


400  The    Poultry    Book 

foisting  them  on  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  in  the  world — one  that  was  in 
full  possession,  and  the  rightful  possessors,  of  the  name  of  Indian  Game, 
now  known  as  the  Azeel,  the  pit-birds  of  India.  They  were  of  wonderful 
and  lustrous  beauty,  of  lengthened  pedigree,  and  of  such  value  that  it  has 
been  said  that  a  lac  of  rupees  has  been  refused  for  one  cock.  These  are 
the  true,  the  real  Indian  Game-fowls;  but  these  Cornish,  which  Enoch 
Hutton  said  "may  be  fairly  called  English,"  are  not,  and  have  made  such 
reputation  as  they  have  by  being  "boomed"  under  a  false  name,  as  an 
inferior  article  is  sometimes  imposed  on  the  unwary  public  under  a  trade- 
mark not  its  own. 

Origin  of  Cornish  Indian 

Here  is  what  a  friend  of  Mr.  Weir's  says  regarding  the  breed:  "The 
true  Indian  Game-cock  has  a  history  ages  before  any  record  can  be  found 
of  the  English  Game-cock — of  which  Englishmen  are  so  justly  proud. 
In  England  the  Indian  Game-cock  has  been  known  and  used,  where,  as 
well  as  in  his  native  land,  he  has  proved  himself  the  gamest  of  the  game. 
But  it  is  with  the  spurious  breed,  not  Game — which  modern  fanciers  have 
manufactured  and  named  Indian  Game  during  the  past  few  decades — 
with  which  we  have  now  to  deal.  If  a  multiplicity  of  names  was  any 
criterion  of  their  merit,  then  would  they  be  the  most  valuable  fowl,  as  they 
have  been  known  by  the  various  cognomens  of  Injees,  Indians,  Pheasant 
Malays,  Spotted  Malays,  Malay  Game,  Himalayan  Game,  Cornish  Game, 
Indian  Game,  and  Cornish  Indian  Game  (where  is  Cornish,  India  ?) ;  and 
probably  there  has  been  even  more  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  their  quality, 
classification,  and  origin  than  even  as  to  their  correct  nomenclature,  for 
while  their  admirers  laud  them  to  the  skies  as  the  most  profitable  and 
best  table-fowl  on  earth,  their  detractors  brand  them  as  the  most  worth- 
less, producing  very  few  eggs,  and  a  long,  lean,  though  plump  breast, 
close-grained  yellow  or  yellowish  skin  and  flesh;  in  addition  to  the  large 
quantity  of  food  they  consume,  which  produces  immense  bone  and  inside 
fat,  mere  worthless  offal.  Exhibitors  assert  that  they  are  Game;  the 
votaries  of  the  sod,  both  here  and  in  America,  prove  them  the  most  abject 
cowards  that  ever  crowed  in  a  cock-pit.  Interested  fanciers  claim  that 
they  are  a  pure  breed  imported  from  India  by  Colonel  Gilbert.  Sportsmen 
who  have  had  the  most  extensive  experience  with  Game-fowl  in  India 
declare  such  fowls  are  totally  unknown  in  India;  while  those  who  know 


The   Modern   Game-fowl 


401 


their  origin  also  know  that  they  were  first  bred  in  Cornwall  from  a  cross 
between  two  distinct  varieties  of  fowls  which  Colonel  Gilbert  never  saw. 
Neither  did    he    take   any   interest   in  nor   import  any  other  breed  of 
fowls  except  Game 
or  Azeel. 

'"East  India- 
man  '  was  the 
term  usually  ap- 
plied to  any  of 
that  magnificent 
class  of  ships 
formerly  engaged 
in  carrying  on  the 
trade  of  the  old 
East  India  Compa- 
ny, and  Falmouth 
being  the  first  port 
on  entering  the 
Channel,  they 
usually  waited 
there  for  orders. 
Those  Indiamen, 
locally  pronounced 
'Injeemen,'  fre- 
quently had  on 
board  strange 
and  new  birds  and 
beasts  from  the 
East,  among 
which  were  fowls, 
mostly  of  the 
Malay    type,    and 

often  very  good  Malays,  too;  but  whether  shipped  from  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  or  the  Philippine  Islands,  or  black,  white,  red,  or  gray  in  color, 
they  were  termed  '  Injees '  or  Indians  in  Cornwall,  from  the  name  of  the 
country  they  were  brought  from,  although  the  officers  and  crew  often 
called  them '  Chittagongs,'  the  word  Malay,  or  the  new  term  Azeel,  as  applied 


MODERN    GAME    COCKEREL 


402 


The    Poultry    Book 


to  fowls,  being  quite  unknown  or  unheard  of  in  Cornwall  until  the  advent 
of  poultry  shows.      Not  only  were  there  a  large  number  of  these  fowls 

(Injees)  kept  in  the  Fal- 
mouth district,  as  stated 
by  the  author  of  a  modern 
poultry  book,  but  their 
short  feathers,  large  size 
and  immense  bone  induced 
many  breeders  of  Game- 
cocks in  other  parts  of  the 
country  to  cross  them  with 
their  own  Game-fowl  in 
order  to  obtain  additional 
strength  and  bone.  The 
produce  of  this  cross  between 
the  '  Injee '  and  true  Game 
were  simply  termed  '  Injee ' 
and  'Game,'  which, 
shortened,  became  perverted 
into  'Injeegame,'  or  Indian 
Game;  and  perhaps  the 
handsomest  birds  ever 
produced  by  crossing  our 
pure  Game-fowl  with  those 
Injees  (more  correctly 
Malays)  were  those  bred 
from  the  celebrated  white 
cocks  of  Captain  Maunsell, 
of  Falmouth.  These  active,  elegant  cocks  had  not  only  won  a 
local  reputation  second  to  none  in  the  county,  but  for  many  years 
after  the  Truro  cockpit  was  closed  (it  has  very  recently  been 
converted  into  a  spirit  store)  fought  in  the  crack  mains  in  London 
with  equal  success.  They  were  '  smock-breasted  white '  cocks,  with 
bright  yellow  legs  and  beaks,  perfect  in  symmetry  and  shape,  and 
so  wary,  fast  and  furious  in  fighting  that  their  battles  were  generally 
short,  sharp,  and  decisive  when  crossed  with  the 'Injee,'  like  all  other 
Injee  crosses." 


■  droning  by  Harrison  IVcir 


G.\ME-FOWL    CHICKS 


The    Modern   Game-fowl  403 

First  Appearance  of  Spurious  Indian  Game  at  Shows 

' '  Their  produce  proved  worthless  as  they  were  not  Game ;  but  those 
who  saw  them  in  the  pens  of  the  first  large  poultry  shows  will  not  easily 
forget  their  pure  white  feathers  and  stately  forms.  They  were  the  admired 
of  all  admirers,  and  a  grand  future  lay  before  them  had  it  not  leaked  out 
that  they  were  not  Game,  followed  by  the  assertion  of  Anglo-Indian 
sportsmen  that  such  fowls  were  unknown  in  India;  and  as  poultry  shows 
were  introduced  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  improving  pure -bred  poultry, 
purity  of  breed  in  a  prize-winner  was  a  paramount  consideration  at  our 
early  shows.  Consequently  inquiries  were  made  by  the  secretary  of  the 
Cornwall  Poultry  Society  and  others  as  to  their  origin,  when  that  excellent 
naturalist  and  friend  of  Yarrell's,  J.  J.  Tratham,  C.  E.  Rook  Hunt  and 
other  breeders  sealed  their  doom  by  frankly  owning  that  they  were  a  cross- 
breed variety  between  white  Game  and  Malay,  alias  '  Injee. '  Banished 
from  the  show-pen,  useless  for  the  pit,  hard  and  dry  in  flesh,  and,  compared 
with  English  Game,  worthless  for  the  table,  they  became  neglected,  and 
at  present  they  are  nearly  if  not  quite  extinct  in  Cornwall.  But  years 
before  this  white  Indian  and  Game  cross  had  been  tabooed,  or  even  appeared 
in  the  show-pen  among  other  colors  of  the  same  cross,  the  Pheasant  Malay 
had  been  produced  by  the  noted  Sam  Diamond  and  his  trusty  friend 
Joseph  Clemens. 

"  Those  who  purchased  them  for  the  pit  soon  proved  they  were  a  fraud ; 
those  for  the  table  found  them  coarse,  hard,  and  dry,  and  of  inferior  qual- 
ity compared  with  the  excellent  Game-fowls  then  in  the  Cornish  markets 
— so  much  so  that  the  higglers  refused  to  take  them  except  at  a  reduced 
price :  thus  they  quickly  became  unpopular ;  and  Mr.  Palmer,  who  has  kept 
them  more  than  forty  years,  recently  stated,  in  an  excellent  article  in  a 
poultry  paper,  'that  at  one  time  they  had  nearly  become  extinct.'  "  Then 
it  was  that  by  dexterous  manipulation,  here  and  there  letters  of  praise 
and  advocacy,  vaunting  them  as  having  qualities  of  excellence  which  they 
had  not  and  never  have  possessed,  they  were,  to  use  an  expressive  American 
phrase,  "boomed."  Like  the  Cochins  and  the  Brahmas,  all  that  could  be 
said  in  their  favor  was  said,  and  more  than  should  have  been,  for  many 
were  thus  induced  to  buy.  Some  not  only  kept  them  awhile,  until  their 
deficiencies  became  apparent,  but  also  unwisely  crossed  them  with  such 
breeds  as  the  old  Kent,   Sussex,  and  Surreys — this  not  only  hardening 


I 


404 


The    Poultry    Book 


I 


! 


PRIZE    MALAY    COCKEREL 


the  breast  meat  of  these  superb  table  fowls,  but  also  lessening  to  a  marked 
degree  the  fine  quality  they  possessed  of  fat  distribution  over  and  above 
the  pectoral  muscles.  There  was  further  deterioration  in  the  way  of  long 
thighs  and  legs,  frequently  with  yellow  or  horn-colored  shanks,  yellow 


The    Modern    Game-fowl  405 

flesh,  skin,  and  fat.  "Thus  this  Malay  cross,"  says  Mr.  Weir,  "through 
the  tact  of  some  and  the  reckless  advice  of  others,  has  caused  and  is 
causing  more  permanent  injury  than  can  possibly  be  imagined  to  our 
best  table  fowls." 

An  American  Point  of  View 

One  of  the  most  experienced  poultrymen  in  America  on  Games  is 
John  Glasgow,  of  New  Jersey,  whose  comments  are  as  follows: 

"Reading  from  an  American  standpoint  Mr.  Weir's  several  chapters 
on  the  Game-fowl,  the  reader  need  not  be  told  that  the  author  is  an  old- 
time  cocker  and  breeder  of  Game-fowls  for  the  pit.  He  exhibits 
considerable  bias  in  favor  of  the  old  English  Game  in  comparison  with 
what  one  is  accustomed  to  call  Standard,  Modern  or  Exhibition  Game 
at  the  present  day. 

"The  writer  of  this  criticism  is  also  an  old-time  fancier  of  some  forty- 
five  years'  standing,  and  the  first  Game-cock  he  ever  owned,  when  a  lad 
of  fifteen,  was  a  brassy-winged  black,  of  the  old  type  and  of  a  famous 
fighting  strain,  in  a  mining  district  of  western  Scotland.  About  this 
period  or  shortly  afterward  a  ban  was  put  upon  cock-fighting  in  England, 
an  act  of  Parliament  being  passed  making  it  a  punishable  offense  to  engage 
in  cock-fighting.  Mr.  Weir  claims  that  a  standard  existed  of  what  the 
Game-cock  should  be,  at  the  time  when  what  he  terms  the  *  new  breed '  was 
launched  on  the  fancy,  viz.,  the  modern  Game-fowl — and  had  been  bred  to, 
from  time  without  date.  This  may  be  so  in  regard  to  formation  of  body 
characteristics,  but  could  not  possibly  be  so  as  far  as  feather  property 
and  colors  went,  because  not  one  cocker  in  a  hundred  cared  a  fig  for  colors, 
and  does  not  now.  Through  crossing  of  strains  that  were  known  stayers 
and  good  fighters,  irrespective  of  colors,  the  progeny  of  a  single  mating 
would  come  of  a  variety  of  colors,  not  only  in  plumage  but  in  color  of 
legs  as  well. 

"The  advocacy  of  the  old-fashioned  in  comparison  with  the  modem 
Game -fowl  by  Mr.  Weir  is  past  my  comprehension.  That  there  is  any 
comparison  in  points  of  beauty  between  the  get-up  of  a  fighting  Game 
and  the  'race  horse'  of  the  feather  fancy,  the  modern  Game,  I  candidly 
confess  I  cannot  see.  There  is  just  as  much  difference  as  there  is  between 
that  of  a  prize-fighter  and  a  blue-blooded  aristocrat.  This  even  Mr.  Weir 
admits  where  he  says,  'in  the  hands  of  a  few  keen,  clear,  thoughtful,  and 


4o6  The    Poultry    Book 

strongly  practical  men  the  new  variety  stands  forth  in  the  new  fashion, 
form  and  dress,  a  thing  of  beauty.' 

"  To  evolve  this  '  thing  of  beauty'  to  the  high  perfection  it  has  attained 
is  a  monument  to  the  men  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  it.  Although 
yir.  Weir  mentions  Captain  Heaton,  Ainscough  and  Brierley  in  particular, 
there  is  no  man  living  or  dead  in  England  to-day  who  has  brought  to  bear 
more  skill  in  perfecting  the  aristocrat  of  the  feathered  fancy,  '  the  lordly 
modern  Game-fowl,'  than  George  Furness,  Hugo  Ainscough 's  present 
manager,  who  exhibits  birds  in  such  superb  condition. 

"  Mr.  Weir  makes  much  of  the  supposed  advantages  of  the  extra-sized 
tail  and  hard,  well-developed  feathering  of  the  old-fashioned  Game-fowl. 
If  of  so  much  advantage,  I  should  like  to  know  why  'cockers,'  when 
preparing  to  fight  their  champions,  divest  them  of  the  flowing  neck-hackles, 
tails  and  wing-feathers  before  going  into  action  ? 

"The  modern  Game-fowl  is  harder  by  many  degrees,  in  feather  and 
flesh,  than  any  old-fashioned  Game  I  have  ever  handled,  and  in  general 
formation  more  symmetrical.  That  they  are  a  difficult  fowl  to  breed  to 
perfection  is  to  be  admitted.  There  are  lots  of  weedy  specimens  raised 
every  year ;  so  there  are  of  every  variety  of  fowls  in  existence,  but  that  is 
the  fault  of  the  breeders  and  not  the  variety,  and  only  adds  zest  to  their 
operations.  Some  fanciers,  as  a  rule,  are  as  game  as  their  birds  and  make 
up  their  minds  to  conquer.  That  the  modern  game  is  inferior  to  the 
old-fashioned  Game  as  utility  fowls  I  do  not  admit.  A  good  judge  of  a 
modern  Game  has  no  use  for  spindled-shanked  specimens  either  in  England 
or  America.  They  want  a  well-developed  thigh,  plenty  of  bone,  and  not, 
as  Mr.  Weir  asserts,  'weakened,  stilty,  thin,  stork-like  legs  and  thighs  with 
shanks  to  match;  and  the  more  slender  these  are  the  more  a  lessening^ 
section  of  fanciers  prize  and  value  them.  When  killed  and  trussed  as 
table  fowls,  these  thighs  and  legs  make  a  fleshless,  ugly  show.'  This 
statement  is  at  variance  with  facts,  as  our  best  breeders  can  substantiate. 
There  is  no  plumper,  short-fleshed,  juicier  fowl  in  existence  than  the 
modern  Game ;  or  one  carrying  less  offal  for  weight  and  flesh — not  even 
the  old-fashioned  Game-fowl. 

"The  reason  why  there  are  so  many  weeds  exhibited  in  the  modern 
Game  classes  in  England  is  because  exhibitors  send  out  their  youngsters 
to  shows  long  before  they  are  well  matured.  As  a  consequence,  they 
undermine  the  constitution  of  the  bird  to  such  a  degree  it  never  makes 


The    Modern    Game-fowl 


407 


the  development  it  otherwise  would.  You  don't  find  such  breeders  as 
Captain  Heaton  or  George  Furness  following  that  plan.  Moreover,  they 
would  not  think  of  mating  up  a  specimen  that  has  a  tendency  to  a  weakened 
constitution ;  hence  the  success  they  attain  at  the  principal  fixtures,  such 
as  the  Palace  and  Birmingham  shows,  against  all  comers.  That  the 
fighting  or  old-fashioned  English  Game  as  exhibited  at  Enghsh  shows 
are  counterparts  of  the 
same  variety  as  they 
were  fifty  years  ago  I 
am  not  prepared  to 
admit.  I  remember  well 
about  thirteen  years 
ago,  when  clubs  were 
formed  to  resuscitate  an 
interest  in  the  old-type 
Game -fowls. 

"They  were  altogether 
too  fleshy  and  soft  to 
handle,  and  lacking  in 
the  characteristics  of  the 
Game-cock  of  half  a 
century  ago.  They  may 
have  improved  since  then 
for  aught  I  know,  still  I 
hold  the  opinion  that 
the  show-room  is  not 
the  place  to  adjudge  the 
qualities  of  a  fighting 
Game-cock.  The  only 
place  is  in  the  cock-pit. 
As  the  fighting  of  Game-cocks  is  a  cruel  relic  of  the  past,  and  punish- 
able as  an  offen:e  in  nearly  every  civilized  country,  all  self-respecting, 
law-abiding  citizens  should  set  their  faces  against  it  and  use  their  birds 
exclusively  for  domestic  purposes,  either  pure  bred  or,  better  yet,  as  a 
cross  on  some  other  pure  breed. 

"The  commercial  value  of  the  old-fashioned  Game  as  compared  with 
modern  or  exhibition  Game,  either  in  England  or  America,  is  very  striking. 


OLD    ENGLISH    BLACK    GAME    HENNY    COCK 
Owned  by  Mr.  -Weir 


» 


4o8 


The    Poultry    Book 


It  will  be  a  long  time  before  a  hundred  guineas  (a  little  over  five  hundred 
dollars  in  American  money)  is  paid  for  an  old-fashioned  Game.  That  sum 
is  by  no  means  a  record  one  for  an  exhibition  or  standard  modern 
Game  in  England." 


/. 

CORNISH    INDIAN   COCKEREL,    i8q2 


l» 


CHAMPION   MODERN    GAME 
Owned  by  Captain  Heaton 


BLACK-BREASTED    RED   TRANSATLANTIC 
The  winner  of  three  battles.    Bred  and  owned  by  Dr.  Clarke 


ORIENTAL    GAME    FOWLS 
Dr.  H.   p.   Clarke,  Indiana 

Who  is  he  who  sets  the  world  in  motion,  the  holy,  strong  Sraosha,  a 
mighty-speared  and  lordly  god  ?  It  is  the  bird  named  Parodars,  the 
cock  that  lifts  up  his  voice  against  the  mighty  dawn. — Vendidad,  ancient 
sacred  book  of  the  Parsees. 

O  DIFFERENT  are  these  birds  from  every  native  European 
race  that  one  can  scarcely  think  of  them  without  being 
brought  to  consider  the  whole  subject  of  the  origin  of 
domestic  poultry.  The  old  idea  that  all  fowls  are  direct 
descendants  of  Galliis  hankiva  is  not  tenable  when  one 
knows  the  nature  of  this  Oriental  type,  its  prepotency,  and  the  persistence 
with  which  it  reproduces  its  kind  under  varied  climates  and  conditions. 
It  may  seem  almost  incredible  that  the  Game-fowl  of  England  could  be 
more  closely  related  to  the  feather-legged  Shanghai  than  either  is  to 
the  Aseel  of  India,  and  yet  there  is  apparent  testimony  to  this  effect. 

The  statement  of  early  authors  that  all  domestic  breeds  tend  to  revert 
to  the  Bankiva  type  does  indeed  hold  good  of  European  and  African  races, 
and  also  of  many  Asiatic  varieties,  but  think  of  the  Game  birds  of  Brazil, 


412 


The    Poultry    Book 


which  have  been  raised  and  fought  there  for  at  least  a  century  and  are 
stronger    in     Oriental     features     to-day    than    our    exhibition     Malay. 

The    S  h  a  m  o    of 
Japan    is   well 
known     as    the 
very   acme   of 
Orientalism,    and 
the     fowls    of 
Madagascar,     re- 
ferred  to    in   the 
next    chapter, 
bear  even  greater 
evidence  that  this 
Oriental     or 
Malayoid  type  is 
a  natural  and  not 
an   acquired  one. 
Lack  of  time 
and  space  forbids 
full  treatment  of 
the  subject  here, 
but  let  us  briefly 
consider    a    few 
points.  American 
soldiers  who  have 
been  stationed  in 
Mindanao      and 
Jolo  say  that  the 
natives   of   those 
islands    are    too    lazy    to    raise    poultry,    so    they    tame    and    pit    the 
jungle  cocks,   and  that  these   wild    cocks    are    absolutely   game    during 
the   breeding    season — that    is,    they    will    fight    to   the   death    in    either 
natural    spurs    or    steels.     These  fowls  of  the  southeyn  Philippines  are 
closely  akin    to    the  Bankiva  and  Sonnerat  of   India,  also   game  cocks, 
and  doubtless  all   descended  from  one  common  ancestor,  for  the  peculiar 
feather-formation  of  the  Sonnerat  offers  but  few  difficulties  to  a  natu- 
ralist.    That   remote   ancestor,    or    possibl>'    the    immediate    parent    of 


SHA.MO    JAPANESE     GAME 


Oriental   Game-fowls 


413 


present-day  Bankiva,  must  have  been  the  progenitor  also  of  the  Old 
English  Game  and  other  European  races,  the  genuine  Game  being  the 
only  real  thoroughbred  which  has  retained  its  original  type  and  courage, 
the  dunghill  races  having  lost  their  primitive  traits  through  degeneracy 
in  domestication. 

Now  having  noted  the  probable  antecedent  of  the  Old  English,  and 
having  observed  that  a  domestic  game-fowl,  even  such  a  bird  as  the  Flemish, 
differs  but  little  from  its  primitive  wild  type,  we  are  led  to  the  conviction 
that  the  present  existence  of  a  game  Aseel  almost  certainly  indicates  that 
some  such  fowl  as  that  described  by  Temminck  under  the  name  Callus 
giganteus  did  once 

live   in   the  wild  ~1 

state.  There  are 
only  two  real  ar- 
guments against 
this  theory :  one 
is  the  fact  that 
all  domestic  fowls 
are  fertile  when 
bred  one  with 
another,  which 
seems  to  be  fully 
explained  by  the 
well-known  "  Pal- 
lasian  doctrine" 
exemplified  in  the 
feline  and  canine 
tribes,  viz., 
descendants  o  f 
species  which, 
when  first  do- 
mesticated, 
would,  if  crossed, 
probably  have 
been  in  some 
degree  sterile,  become  perfectly  fertile  after  a  long  course  of  domestication. 

The  other,  and  the  one  upon  which  Darwin  rested  his  belief,   is  the 


AN  AMERICAN  GAME-COCK,  W 


Phot.-'Z'-nph  hy  courtesy  of  Dr.  Clarke 
TH  JUST  A  TRACE  OF  ORIENTAL  BLOOD 


414  The    Poultry    Book 

fact  that  no  such  wild  fowl  has  ever  been  found,  and  its  extinction  he  con- 
sidered "an  improbable  hypothesis,  seeing  that  the  four  known  species 
have  not  become  extinct  in  the  most  ancient  and  thickly  peopled  regions 
of  the  East."  But  reasoning  from  analogy,  and  going  upon  the  theory 
that  Old  English  Game  as  closely  resembles  Bankiva  as  the  Aseel  or  the 
Shamo  Jap  does  its  own  wild  prototype,  let  us  try  to  picture  the  primitive 
Oriental.  Think  of  the  short  wings  and  heavy  build,  and  consider  whether 
after  all  it  would  not  be  "an  improbable  hypothesis"  to  expect  such  a 
wild  fowl  to  survive  "in  the  most  ancient  and  thickly  peopled  regions  of 
the  East."  Would  it  not  rather  have  been  a  matter  of  wonder  if  such  a 
fowl  in  the  wild  state  had  failed  to  go  the  way  of  the  dodo  and  the 
great  auk? 

Returning  to  the  subject  of  classification,  it  will  be  found  that 
all  domestic  fowls,  both  game  and  dunghill,  may  be  grouped  under 
two  headings  or  distinctive  types,  one  of  which  for  convenience  sake 
we  will  call  the  Bankiva,  the  other  the  Malayoid  or  Oriental.  Game 
fanciers  sometimes  recognize  a  third,  the  pheasant*  type,  but  this  last  is 
generally  thought  to  be  either  a  slight  variation  from  the  Bankiva  or 
the  same  with  a  small  infusion  of  Oriental  blood.  It  embraces  such 
varieties  as  the  Minoshki  of  Japan,  our  old-time  Sumatra,  and  some 
of  the  slasher  fighters  of  the  Far  East  as  illustrated  in  the  "Ayam 
Jallak"  of  Wright's  first  edition. 

The  Chittagong  of  India,  named  after  a  city  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Brahmaputra  River,  is  the  common  farm  fowl  of  that  country.  In  blood 
it  may  be  considered  a  grade  Aseel,  strongly  Oriental  in  features,  though 
without  any  fixed  character  of  form,  size  or  plumage.  The  fowl  known 
in  England  and  the  United  States  as  Malay  is  simply  a  standard-bred 
Chittagong,  its  present  perfection  and  uniformity  being  due  to  British 
art  rather  than  to  anything  East  Indian.  It  is  not  an  original  or  pure 
breed,  but  very  distinctly  Oriental,  and  consequently  quite  different  from 
all  European  and  from  many  Asiatic  varieties. 

Mr.  Weir  appears  not  to  distinguish  between  the  Malay  and  the  Malay 
Game.  The  former  is  a  heavy-weight  farm  fowl  or  show  bird  of  strong 
Oriental  features.     The  latter  is  a  light-weight  fighting  fowl,  not  Oriental, 

*  In  America  the  term  "  pheasant "  refers  to  shape  and  carriage,  in  England  to  color 
of  plumage  This  difference  in  usage  is  what  caused  Lewis  Wright  to  confuse  the 
Pheasant  Malay  with  the  Sumatra  Pheasant,  two  varieties  quite  dissimilar. 


Oriental    Game-fowls 


415 


but  rather  pheasant  type.  The  birds  mentioned  as  being  fought  at  Manila 
and  those  described  by  Mr.  Saborg  are  evidently  Malay  Games,  not  Malays. 

English  fanciers  are  in  the  habit  of  referring  to  Aseel  as  "the  true 
Indian  fighting-cock,"  and  the  expression  is  perfectly  correct  as  applied 
to  the  north  of  India,  in  the  region  of  Patna,  Cawnpore,  Lucknow,  Agra, 
and  Delhi.  But  there  are  other  varieties  of  fighting-fowls  in  other  parts 
of  India,  and  some  of  them  quite  unlike  the  bird  we  now  know  as  Aseel. 
"India  Game,"  as  they  were  formerly  called,  have  occasionally  appeared 
in  this  country  since  long 
before  the  poultry  show  era, 
and  it  may  be  possible  that 
some  of  those  early  importa- 
tions were  of  Aseels.  The 
first  birds  brought  to  the 
United  States  which  actually 
bore  this  name  were  imported 
by  the  writer  some  seventeen 
years  ago.  They  did  well  in 
our  climate  and  proved  quite 
a  valuable  acquisition ;  too  slow 
when  bred  pure,  but  of  great 
value  for  crossing,  and  the 
blood  may  now  be  found  in 
several  of  America's  most 
successful  pit  strains. 

How    strange    it    is   that 
almost  every  author  who  writes 

on  the  subject  of  Cornish  Indian  tells  a  different  story  as  to  the  fowl's  origin, 
and  stranger  still  that  nearly  all  these  stories  may  be  correct,  for  the  truth  of 
the  matter  seems  to  be  that  the  modern  Cornish,  like  the  White  Plymouth 
Rock,  came  from  several  sources.  Similar  birds  exist  in  the  Deccan.  This 
has  been  denied  by  some  English  fanciers,  but  it  is  noticeable  that  "  Poultry 
Keeping  in  India"  (a  very  pretentious  cloth -bound  volume  lately  pub- 
hshed  at  Calcutta)  uses  a  number  of  old  British  and  American  cuts  of 
Cornish  fowls  to  illustrate  "Hyderabad  Game."  Many  of  the  crosses 
named  by  poultry  authors  contain  too  large  a  proportion  of  real  game 
blood,  and  this  fault  may  be  found  with  some  of  the  statements  given  by 


Photograph  by  i 
JAP-ASEEL    CROSS 


<rtesy  0/  Dr.  Clarke 


4i6 


The   Poultry    Book 


Mr.  Weir's  informants.  The  disposition  and  soft  feathers  of  most  modem 
Cornish  would  seem  to  indicate  a  mixing  with  something  rather  more  on 
the  order  of  the  Langshan  or  Dorking. 

Our  new  American  Standard  credits  the  Cornish  with  being  composed 
of  Derby,  Aseel,  and  Black  Sumatra.  The  trouble  about  this  is  that  a 
melange  of  five-pound  birds  could  hardly  turn  out  ten-pound  offspring, 
and  the  Sumatra  was  not  known  in  England  at  that  time  anyhow.  The 
sum  of  it  all  is  that  if  you  mate  a  laced  Aseel  cock  with  hens  of  almost  any 
large-sized  smooth-legged  race  you  will  be  able  to  pick  some  Cornish  out 
of  the  progeny.  Birds  more  or  less  of  this  character  have  been  known 
in  the  United  States  for  many  years,  but  the  first  true  Cornish  were 
introduced  to  the  American  public  at  the  Indiana  State  Fair  in  the 
autumn  of  1887,  and  next  exhibited  at  the  Indianapolis  Poultry  Show 
in  January,  1888. 


I 


CORNISH    INDIAN    COCK 


FOWLS    KNOWN   AS   "FIG-PUDDING,"   or   "PLUM-PUDDING"   GAME    FOWLS, 
BUT   MOBE   PROPEELY   "  ALMOND    MOTTLES." 


l-yoin   ci  pnolograpn  /'y  J'r.  H.  P.  Clarke,  hid. 
FLEMISH    GRAY    STAG    AND    COMBATTANT    DU    NORD    HEN 
Owned  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke,  Indiana 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ABOUT  GAME-FOWLS* 
Dr.  H.   p.  Clarke,  Indiana 


Leporem  et  gallinam  et  anserem  gustare  fas  non  putant:  haec  tamen 
alunt,  animi  voluptatisque  causa. — De  Bello  Gallico. 

CASUAL  reader  of  the  ordinary  poultry  paper  might  form 
an  idea  that  there  were  not  many  Game-fowls  in  this 
country,  but  after  learning  of  the  six  monthly  journals 
and  one  weekly  publication  devoted  exclusively  to  Game 
he  would  begin  to  realize  that  this  branch  of  the  fancy 
forms  a  little  world  all  to  itself.  There  are  several  distinct  breeds  of 
Game-fowl,  and  almost  as  many  sub-varieties  as  there  are  non-Game 
kinds  in  the  Standard.  The  pure  American  Games,  as  distinguished  from 
crosses  of  the  Jap  and  Aseel,  are  mostly  made  up  from  Irish,  English, 
and   Spanish  elements,    the  proportions  being  probably  as  in  the  order 

*  In  this  chapter.  Dr.  Clarke,  one  of  the  closest  students  of  Game-fowls  in  America, 
has  covered  the  subject  in  a  general  way.  He  has  touched  matters  of  special  interest  to  all 
breeders  and  fanciers  in  this  and  other  countries. — Editor. 

417 


4i8 


The    Poultry   Book 


named,  for  the  land  of  "Kelly  and  Burke  and  Sheay"  has  contributed 
to  us  much  of  its  fighting  blood  in    cocks    as  well  as  men. 

The  "modern"  Game  of  Great 
Britain  is  rapidly  passing  from  view- 
in  its  native  home  and  being 
replaced  in  poultry  shows  by  the 
Old  English.  This  same  trend  of 
the  fancy  is  becoming  apparent 
in  the  United  States,  and  possibly 
by  the  time  the  American  Poultry 
Association  is  ready  for  another 
revision  fanciers  may  be  clamor- 
ing for  the  Pit  Game  standard 
which  was  adopted  and  after- 
ward thrown  out  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association  at  Indianapolis 
in  1888. 

The  Transatlantic  fowls 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations are  descended  from,  or 
closely  related  to,  the  first-prize 
pen  in  the  Pit  Game  class  at  the 
World's  Fair,  Chicago,  in  1893,  and 
are  of  the  same  breeding  as  the  first  pen  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition. 


GRAY    THREE-QUARTER    TRANSATLANTIC 
A  four-time  winner 


Belgian 

There  are  in  Belgium  three  distinct  varieties:  Flemish,  Liege, 
Bruges.  The  "Flamand,"  as  it  is  called  in  French,  is  the  steel-spur 
fighter  of  West  Flanders  and  Hainaut.  Cocking  is  prohibited  in 
Belgium,  and  as  a  consequence  no  publicly  advertised  mains  are 
held,  but  that  historic  borderland  which  Napoleon  called  "The 
Cockpit  of  Europe"  is  alive  with  fighting  fowl.  From  ]\Ions  and 
Main  vault;  through  Tournai  and  Templeuve — i.  e.,  Templiim-Jovis, 
a  relic  of  the  Roman  times;  Courtrai  of  the  ancient  prison; 
on,  almost,  to  the  city  of  Bruges,  whose  belfry  our  own  poet 
Longfellow  celebrated  in  verse — throughout  this  whole  region,  in  fact — 
cock-fighting   is   the    common   pastime  of  the    people,  and   the   number 


General   Remarks   About   Game-fowls 


419 


of    birds   used   in  small   mains   and   private   matches   during  each  year 
is  something  enormous. 

Nearly  all  colors  are  to  be  found,  but  light  and  dark  grays  are  the 
most  common  and  apparently  bred  to  the  highest  point  of  excellence. 
Many  elegant  mottles,  blues,  brass-backs  and  reds  are  also  seen.  Fowls 
have  single  combs,  and  are  heavily  feathered,  with  long  wings  and  full 
tail.  Cocks  usually  w^eigh  between  eight  and  ten  pounds,  and  are  very 
active,  considering  their  size — much  more  so  thanBritish  Game  of  even 
approximate  dimensions. 

Closely  related  to  the  preceding,  and,  indeed,  differing  but  little  except 
in  such  points  as  naturally  distinguish  a  naked-heeler  from  a  steel  fighter, 
is  the  Combattant  de  Liege^  or  coq  du  pays,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  the 
north  of  Belgium.  The  fashion  there  is  to  match  cocks  in  natural  spurs. 
Little  circular  straw  pits  about  six  feet  across  are  set  up  at  almost  any 
convenient  place,  two  birds  are  thrown  in,  and  the  ftin  commences.  Liege, 
Hasselt  and  Tirlemont  are  centers 
for  this  kind  of  sport,  and  much 
of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  old 
Flemish  town  of  Borgerhout,  a 
separate  corporation,  although 
inside  the  fortification  walls  of 
Antwerp,  and  to  be  reached  by 
street-cars  from  the  old  cathedral 
where  hangs  Rubens's  most 
famous  painting,  "The  Descent 
from  the  Cross."  These  cocks 
average  about  two  pounds  heavier 
than  the  Flamands  and  are  slower 
in  action,  stronger,  tougher,  and 
more  rugged.  Common  colors, 
dark  red,  iron-gray,  blue-red. 

The  name  Bruges  is  some- 
times applied  by  poultrymen, 
seldom  by  cockers,  to  both  Game 
varieties  of  northern  Belgium. 
Strictly  speaking,  Liege  is  the  true  pit-fowl  and  Bruges  the  ]\Ialay-cross  ex- 
hibition bird.    They  bear  about  the  same  relation  one  to  another  as  the  Old 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Dr.  H.  P.  Clarke 

BLACK    RED    TRANSATLANTIC 
Owned  by  John  T.  Maunder,  of  Ontario,  Canada 


420  The    Poultry    Book 

English  and  the  modern  or  standard  Game.  The  Bruges  is  a  tall,  coarse- 
looking  fowl  with  pea-comb,  heavy  brow,  comparatively  scant  plumage  and 
small  tail,  usually  some  kind  of  a  blue  in  colour,  either  blue-red  or  blue- 
gray.  Hens,  blue  with  lacing,  similar  to  Andalusians.  Being  part 
Malay  in  blood,  it  is  not  a  real  Game  bird,  and  consequently  of  no  value 
for  pit  purposes.  In  this  connection  there  is  cause  to  remark  that  if  any 
cross  be  made  between  Game  and  non-Game,  the  offspring  may  be  line- 
bred  to  the  Game  parent  for  countless  generations  and  will  never  produce 
a  genuine  Game-fowl. 

French 

The  Combattant  dii  Nord  is  practically  identical  with  the  Flamand 
of  southern  Belgium,  the  two  being  often  bred  together  or  crossed  one 
upon  the  other.  Yet  some  few  minor  differences  may  be  noticed.  The 
French  fowl  averages  about  half  a  pound  lighter  in  weight  than  the  Flemish 
and  shows  some  feather  markings  not  often  seen  in  that  variety.  Fully 
one -half  of  the  French  birds  are  yellow-legged,  black-breasted,  bright 
reds,  the  remainder  being  blue-legged  dark  reds,  green-legged  golden 
duckwings,  yellow-legged  pyles,  and  yellow-legged  pure  whites.  Fowls 
with  white  legs  are  occasionally  seen,  but  rare.  The  two  adjoining  depart- 
ments of  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais  are  a  kind  of  cock-fighters'  paradise. 

Game  is  the  common  fowl  of  the  country,  and  in  nearly  all  the  larger 
towns  and  cities  cocking  contests  are  advertised  on  the  bill-boards  and 
mains  fought  every  day  in  the  week  between  St.  Eloi  and  ist  of  ]\Iay. 
Roubaix  has  the  largest  cockpit  in  Europe,  with  a  seating  capacity  of 
two  thousand.  It  is  here  most  of  the  grand  concourses  take  place.  At 
Lille  there  are  more  than  twenty  public  cockpits,  besides  a  fine  big  hippo- 
drome where  entertainments  of  this  sort  are  sometimes  held.  The  best 
birds  of  Britain  have  there  fought  and  lost. 

Another  cocking  community  exists  at  St.  Malo,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  and 
extending  into  Brittany.  Here  the  birds  are  mostly  medium  weights, 
fought  with  rules  and  steels  not  unlike  the  American.  One  other  cocking 
center  is  in  Ariege,  near  the  Spanish  frontier,  and  the  sport  is  not  unknown 
at  Marseilles.  From  all  that  can  be  learned,  it  would  seem  as  if  Game- 
fowl  had  been  bred  in  France  since  before  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion. 
They  are  known  to  have  existed  in  Britain  at  that  early  date,  and  it 
certainly  appears  more  reasonable  to  suppose  the  birds  were  taken  across 


General    Remarks  About   Game-fowls 


421 


the  channel  from  the  Gauls  of  the  mainland,  who  held  many  customs  and 
practices  in  common  with  their  island  neighbors,  rather  than  imagine 
the  birds  carried  over  sea  all  the  way  from  the  Levant  by  the  tin-hunting 
Phoenicians  and  then  dropped  among  the  semisavage  nomads  on  the 
wild  and  dreary  coast  of  Cornwall.     Prior  to  about  the  year  1830,  when 

it    was    put    under  

ban,  cocking  was  a  ::  ^^''i.A*-  -.ib-:'m'^\ 

popular  pastime  at 

the  French  capital. 

Since  then  the  gay 

Parisians  "  know  not 

Joseph,"    but    get 

their     excitement 

through     such 

channels     as     the 

naughty     can -can 

and  the   ''danse  du 

ventre." 

Two  foreign 
breeds  found  in 
France  may  well 
be  considered  under 
this  heading.  One 
is  the  "Race  de 
Barbarie,"  or  fight- 
ing Bantam,  and 
the  other  a  naked- 
n  e  c  k  fowl  called 
MalgacJie  ' '      or 

"Denude''  from  Madagascar.  The  name  Barbary  was  once  applied  to 
the  five  states  of  northern  Africa:  Egypt,  TripoH,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and 
Morocco,  all  then  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
and  the  presumption  is  that  these  Bantams  came  originally  from 
one  of  those  countries,  just  which  one  is  not  now  known.  Of  late 
years  no  Game-fowls  have  been  discovered  in  northern  Africa  except 
a  few  among  the  Spanish  settlements  at  Ceuta,  Melilla,  etc.  The 
Barbary  cocks  of  France  usually  weigh  from  two    to    two    and    a    half 


t-sy  of  Dr.  Clarke 


AFTER    HIS     SIXTH     BATTLE 
ing  the  American  method  of  heeling  and  trir 


422  The    Poultry    Book 

poiinds,  greatly  resemble  in  style  the  newly  produced  Old  English 
Game  Bantam  (some  strains  of  the  latter  being  unquestionably 
of  Barbary  blood),  and  run  through  the  usual  variation  in  colors.  The 
handsomest  are  mille-fLeiirs,  what  we  might  call  tri-color  spangles.  They 
are  fought  in  funny  little  steel  spurs  about  one  inch  in  length,  can  fly 
almost  equal  to  pigeons,  and  the  pure  breed  is  said  to  be  absolutely  game. 

The  Alalgadie  is  much  like  a  Shamo  Jap  whose  plumage  has  been 
all  plucked  out  excepting  wings,  tail  and  a  small  tuft  on  top  of  the  head. 
Too  slow  for  any  use  excepting  naked-heels — and  fowls  are  not  fought 
that  way  in  France — but  of  very  greatest  interest  to  the  scientific  breeder 
and  naturalist.  All  Oriental  Game-fowls  are  scant  in  plumage  and  often 
show  spots  of  bare  red  skin  upon  breast  and  shoulders,  so  it  is  easy  to  see 
how  this  tendency  could  be  followed  up,  by  selection  in  breeding,  imtil 
a  bird  were  produced  almost  destitute  of  feathers.  But  think  where  this 
chicken,  as  illustrated  on  page  423,  comes  from — that  is  the  most  remarkable 
thing — from  the  Island  of  Madagascar.  The  dominant  native  tribe  there 
is  the  Hova,  whose  language  as  well  as  racial  characteristics  show  a 
relationship  not  with  the  nearby  coast  of  Africa,  but  with  the  Malay 
countrv^  more  than   three  thousand  miles  away. 

Think  how  remarkable  that  such  a  man  should  have  been  able  to 
cross  the  Indian  Ocean  centuries  ago,  even  before  its  waters  were  ruffled 
by  European  craft.  Think  how  much  more  wonderful  still  the  fact  that 
he  took  his  domestic  fowls  with  him,  that  the  Oriental  type  remained 
imchanged  in  its  new-found  home — not  all  varieties  are  lacking  in  plumage 
— and  that  real  Malay  chickens  may  be  had  to-day  as  easily  in  Madagascar, 
Reunion,  and  Mauritius  (see  Mr.  Weir's  remarks  on  Ravenhill's  Malays) 
as  at  Pinang  or  Singapore. 

Spanish 

The  Spaniards  as  well  as  their  descendants  are  notoriously  poor 
breeders,  so  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  the  fowls  of  Spain  were  very 
frequently  infused  with  a  bracer  of  English  blood,  just  as  the  strains  of 
Mexico  are  kept  up  by  importations  from  this  country.  But  that  Game- 
birds  and  cocking  were  unknown  in  the  Peninsula  before  the  campaigns 
of  Wellington  and  his  soldiers — a  view  almost  universally  held  in  Great 
Britain — seems  very  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  well-known  fact  that 
Spanish  Game,  "  Gallos  de  pelea  Espanoles"  have  been  fought   in  Cuba 


General    Remarks   About    Game-fowls  423 

ever  since  the  island's  first  settlement.  Spain  is  one  country  in  the  world 
where  the  royal  sport  is  undoubtedly  on  the  decline.  There  is  no  longer 
a  pit  at  Cadiz — formerly  one  of  the  great  cocking  centers — and  very  few 
birds  are  now  to  be  seen  at  Algeciras,  Marbella,  Cartagena  or  Valencia. 
Malaga  still  has  a  fair  supply  and  seems  to  be  about  the  only  city  on  the 
Mediterranean  so  provided. 

Of  the  different  lands  where  cocking  flourished  in  early  historic 
times — Italy,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  Egypt,  Persia — not 
one  contains  a  native  race  of  Game  at  present,  and  the  sport  surv^ives 
only  in  the  last-named  country  in  the  form  of  small  boys'  amusement, 
matching  common  cocks  in  nature's  weapons. 


Phocogrnph  taken  igoi  and  reproduced 
by  courtesy  of  Dr.  Clark 


ISLAND   OF    MADAGASCAR   GAME 


OLD    KENT    AND    SUSSEX    BARN-DOOR    COCK 


THE    FARM    OR    HOAIESTEAD    FOWL* 


1 

1 

"  Let  me  embrace  thee,  good  old  chronicle, 
That  hast  so  long  walk'd  hand  in  hand  with  time." — Troilus  and  Cressida. 

HE  time  and  origin  of  our  domestic  fowl  will  never  be 
known;  surmises  have  been  made,  and  indefinite  con- 
clusions have  been  arrived  at,  but  the  foundations  of 
belief  are  such  as  to  leave  considerable  doubt  as  to  the 
stability  and  strength  of  the  theory,  though  said  to  be 
based  on  natural  sequences.  Whether  the  domestic  fowl  was  derived 
from  one  source  only,  or  whether  there  were  others  that  have  passed  from 
the  earth  leaving  no  trace  behind,  is  a  moot  question,  and  one  that  must 

*  As  the  three  following  chapters  deal  largely  with  English  breeds,  Mr.  Weir's  text  as 
it  appeared  in  the  English  edition  has  been  but  sHghtly  changed.  It  is  printed  substantially 
as  he  wrote  it,  except  where  condensation  and  revision  were  necessary  to  meet  American 
ideas  and  conditions. — Editor. 

425 


426  The    Poultry    Book 

be  left  undecided.  No  absolute  proof  exists,  yet  there  are  peculiarities 
and  differences  that  were  noted  centuries  ago,  that  I  for  one  can  scarcely 
reconcile,  as  to  our  domestic  fowl  having  but  one  common  origin,  that  of 
G alius  hankiva.  It  being  so  well  known,  it  is  needless  to  say  that  thousands 
of  years  ago  poultry  was  not  only  one  of  the  valued  adjuncts  of  the  farm, 
but,  from  descriptions  of  them  still  in  existence,  there  were  other  numerous 
forms,  sizes,  and  varieties ;  though  as  to  what  they  were,  or  how  differing 
from  each  other,  we  get  no  insight  until  about  the  first  year  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  that  from  the  pens  of  Lucius  Junius,  Moderratus,  Columella, 
Varro,  and  Pliny  the  younger.  Nor  do  any  of  these  write  as  though 
the  varieties  were  something  new,  or  that  the  fowls  of  the  period  were 
merely  the  reclaimed  of  the  wild,  but  distinctly  point  to  the  fact  by  their 
descriptions  that  there  was  at  that  time  little  or  no  resemblance  between 
the  varieties  then  enumerated  and  the  slightly  made,  brilliant-colored 
inhabitants  of  the  Indian  jungle.  True,  they  WTite  of  the  courageous 
fowls  of  Tanagra,  and  they  note  also  the  fatting  of  a  different  kind  of 
poultry  at  Delos,  etc. ;  while  Columella  gives  at  length  a  description  which, 
taken  as  being  correct,  tells  of  a  fowl  for  the  homestead  and  for  the  table 
of  even  superexcellence.  Nor  are  these  mentioned  as  in  any  way  peculiar 
or  strange ;  but  such,  among  others,  in  the  beHef  of  the  writer,  being  the 
best  of  their  kind  and  the  most  desirable  for  profit  beyond  all  others. 
Thus  at  that  time  the  fowl  as  a  household  bird  was  plentiful,  of  the  highest 
quality,  and  not  only  in  great  variety,  but  even  then  held  in  the  greatest 
esteem,  as  much  for  its  dignified  bearing  and  courage  as  for  its  culinary 
usefulness. 

Pliny  the  younger,  having  a  naturalist's  knowledge  of  the  fowl  as  it 
then  was,  writes  enthusiastically  of  the  noble  bird.  In  the  tenth  book 
of  his  great  work  he  says :  "  These  birds  about  our  houses  are  our  sentinels 
by  night.  Nature  has  created  them  to  awaken  and  call  men  up  to  do 
their  work ;  they  have  also  a  sense  and  understanding  of  glory ;  moreover, 
they  are  astronomers  and  know  the  course  of  the  stars;  they  divide  the 
day  by  their  crowing  from  three  hours  to  three  hours ;  when  the  sun  goes 
to  rest  they  go  to  roost,  and  like  sentinels  they  keep  relief  of  the  fourth 
watch;  in  the  camp  they  call  men  up  to  their  careful  labor  and  travel. 
They  will  not  suffer  the  sun  to  rise  and  steal  upon  us,  but  they  give  warning 
of  it ;  by  their  crowing  they  tell  us  the  day  is  coming,  likewise  by  clapping 
their  sides  with  their  wings.     Ye  shall  see  them  march  stately,  carrying 


The    Farm   or   Homestead    Fowl 


427 


their  necks  bolt  upright,  with  a  comb  on  their  heads  hke  the  crest  of  a 
soldier's  helmet,  and  there  is  not  a  bird  besides  himself  that  so  oft  looketh 
up  to  the  sun  and  sky;  and  hereupon  it  is  that,  advancing  proudly  as  they 
do,  the  very  lions,  which  of  all  wild  beasts  are  the  most  courageous,  will 
not  abide  the  sight  of  them." 

This  is  the  general  outline  of  "the  bird"  as  Pliny  saw  it,  and  for  which 
he  has  no  stint  of 
admiration.  But 
long  before  his  time 
— ages,  perhaps — its 
valor  was  known, 
and  in  the  far-away 
centuries  it  was 
appreciated ;  and 
one  section  at  least 
was  kept  almost  as 
warrior  retainers  for 
strife  and  "wage  of 
battle"  only.  Of 
these,  distinctive  as 
birds  of  a  higher 
grade,  different  as 
is  the  mettled  racer 
or  the  Arab  steed 
from  the  massive 
Clydesdale  cart- 
horse, was  the 
Game -fowl  of 
Tanagra  from  that 
of  the  farm,  so  well 
described  by 
Columella  as  the 
fowl  that  lacked 
nothing  to  make  it 
perfect  in  form, 
size,  and  utility;  he  also  tells  what  it  should  be  and  no  doubt  then 
was:     "They  should  be  of  a  plumage  red  or  tawny,  with  black  wings. 


CORNISH    INDIAN   PULLET,   SHOWING    PHEASANT   MARKINGS 
First  prize,  Crystal  Palace,  1893 


428 


The   Poultry   Book 


Let  the  whole  be  of  the  same  color,  or  a  near  approach.  Let  white 
fowls   be    avoided,    for   they   are   tender   and  less  robust;   neither   is   it 

easy  to  find  those 
of  that  color 
that  are  prolific. 
Let  the  breeding 
hens  be  of  a 
choice  color,  of 
robust  body, 
scjuare-  framed, 
large  and  broad- 
breasted,  large 
heads,  with  small 
erect  combs  and 
white  ears ;  and 
of  those  thus 
characterized  let 
the  largest  be 
procured,  and  not 
with  an  equal 
number  of  claws. 
Those  hens  are 
reckoned  the 
purest  bred  which 
are  five-clawed, 
but    so   placed 

that  no  cross  spurs  arise  from  the  legs,  for  she  that  hath  this  malelike 
appendage  is  rarely  fruitful,  and  when  she  does  sit  she  breaks  the  eggs 
with  her  sharp  spurs  or  claws." 

Here  it  will  be  observed  that  as  far  back  as  two  thousand  years 
Columella  speaks  of  the  pureness  of  breed ;  this  is  evidence  that  there  were 
others  with  which  they  might  be  mingled  or  crossed,  but  he  does  not 
consider  it  advisable,  as  he  expressly  mentions  that  the  hens  should  be 
of  the  "purest  breed";  and  if  the  hens  were  of  such  form  and  color 
it  would  be  difficult  to  either  improve  or  equal,  much  less  surpass 
them,  just  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reason  that  the  Kent, 
Sussex,    and    Surrey    fowls    of    fifty    years    ago    were     pronounced    by 


OLD    AZEEL    COCK 
Owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl  431 

competent    judges    to    be    of    such    excellence    for    the    table    as    was 
"unsurpassed  and  unsurpassable." 

Columella  continues:  "The  cocks  should  be  lustful,  colored  like 
the  hens,  with  the  same  number  of  claws,  but  taller,  proud  of  carriage, 
with  combs  erect,  and  of  blood-red;  eyes  brown  and  black,  beak  short 
and  hooked,  ears  very  large  and  very  white,  wattles  looking  white  for 
their  shining  and  hanging  down  like  a  beard;  the  feathers  of  the  neck 
varying,  but  preferably  yellow  or  golden,  and  spreading  down  over  the 
shoulders;  the  breast  broad  and  muscular,  the  wings  brawny,  like  arms; 
the  tail  lofty  and  composed  of  a  double  row  of  arching  feathers,  legs  sturdy. 
not  long,  but  armed  as  it  were  with  dangerous  spurs.  Even  when  not 
prepared  for  fighting  or  triumph  of  victory  their  temper  should  be  shown 
to  be  highly  generous,  haughty,  active,  watchful,  and  given  to  crow  often, 
also  not  easily  alarmed,  for  sometimes  it  may  be  needful  for  them  to 
repel  attacks  and  protect  their  conjugal  flocks."  ■< 

From  the  foregoing  may  be  noted  the  great  resemblance  between 
these  and  our  old  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  five-toed  fowls  of  half  a  century 
ago.     Chaucer,  writing  in  the  fourteentli  century,  tells  of  a  similar  fowl. 

Maister  Prudens  Choiselat  (in  1586)  describes  the  farm  fowl 
of  that  period,  and  the  profit  to  be  gained  by  a  poultry  farm  tc  be  "five 
hundred  pounds  of  honest  profit,  all  cost  and  charges  deducted."  He 
states  that  "fivescore  cocks  shall  suffice  for  twelve  hundred  hennes; 
for  one  cock  may  suffice  for  ten  hennes."  And  as  for  their  age,  those 
of  "one  yeare  and  a  half  unto  two  yeares  are  the  best."*  The  color  is 
like  to  that  described  by  Columella:  "You  shall  consider  the  plumage  or 
feathers;  the  black,  red,  and  tawnie  are  the  best,  also  they  have  their 
crests  or  combs  upright  and  double,  or  divided  ;  their  eyes  red  and  glistening, 
their  beaks  short  and  hooked,  well  spurred,  their  going  haughtie  and 
proude,  their  voice  strong  and  sounding,  and  a  crow  much  representyng 
such  a  majestic  as  the  cock  of  the  Persians,  which  among  them  was  rever- 
enced for  a  'Kyng,'  as  reciteth  Aristophanes." 

It  appears  that  in  those  days  women  were  employed  "to  increase 
and  govern  them  well":  "You  must  have  foure  servants  or  maides 
with  large  eares,  well  to  conceive  and  understand  your  commandments, 
and  the  feete  of  hartes,  with  diligent  expedition  to  execute  the  same, 
and  a  right  trustie  right  hande  to  be  faithful,  loiall,  obedient,  and  of  few 

*  Then  as  now. 


432 


The    Poultry    Book 


wordes;  for,  as  saith  Terentian  Parmenis,  'it  is  a  great  fault  of  servants 
to  be  babblers  and  not  to  keep  their  master's  counsel ' ;  their  office  shall 
be  bringing  the  hennes  into  their  houses  every  day  at  five  of  the  clock  in 


LEG    OF    TAWNY    OLD    KENT    FIVE-TOED    FOWL 
lireii  and  ovvneii  by  Mr.  Weir 


the  evening  in  summer,  and  at  three  of  the  clock  in  winter;  also  they 
shall  be  diligent  to  close  the  entries  and  windows  of  the  henne-houses, 
that  in  the  nighte  the  foxe*  (the  natural  enemy  of  the  henne),  weaselles, 
and  polecats,  mai  have  no  access,  and  in  the  morning  open  the  entries 
and  windows  that  they  may  come  forth,  and  then  make  clean  the  perches 
and  lathes ;  also  refresh  their  pottes  and  troughs  with  clean  water,  for 
filthy   and   corrupt    water    engendereth    pippe    and    other    sicknesses." 

Here  it  should  be  noted  that  the  hen-house  is  to  be  cleansed  every 
morning,  and  further,  that  fresh  water  is  to  be  given  in  all  the  pots  and 
troughs;  showing  how  careful  the  poultr3^-keeper  of  that  period  was  for 
the  comfort,  health,  and  cleanliness  of  his  fowls.  But  I  am  somewhat 
in  doubt  whether  it  would  be  possible  to  get  "four  maides  with  large 
eares"  to  undertake  the  management  of  twelve  hundred  hens  and  five- 
score cocks  at  the  present  time. 

All  the  writers  on  the  subject  seem  to  agree  with  Columella  as  to 
what  a  good  fowl  should  be.     Leonard  Mascall,  writing  in  1581,  speaks 

*  It  will  be  observed  that  both  in  this  century  and  the  subsequent  no  mention  is  made 
of  the  rat,  which  is  now  the  bane  of  nearly  all  our  poultry  yards  and  houses. 


The    Farm    or    Homestead    Fowl 


433 


precisely  in  the  same  way  as  to  the  signs  and  figure  of  a  good  hen :  "And 
these  to  be  of  a  tawny  color,  or  of  a  russet  [reddish  black],  which  are 
counted  the  chiefest  colors ;  and  those  hennes  next  whiche  hathe  ye 
pens  *  and  hackled  not  all  blackish  but  in  parte,  as  in  the  greye  and  white 
hennes,  are  nothynge  so  profitable.  The  henne  with  a  tuft  of  feathers 
on  her  head  is  reasonably  good,  and  of  feathered  hens  also  keep  the  grey, 
the  brown,  and  the  red."  This  is  the  first  mention  of  top-knots.  He 
adds:  "Chickens  lay  in  seven  months."!  Our  present  early  layers  lay 
sometimes  at  five  months,  but  this  is  an  exception ;  so  in  this  respect  we 
have  now  a  slight  advantage  wdth  some  breeds,  but  not  in  all.  Further 
he  says:  "The  redde  cocke  is  counted  on  as  the  best." 

Thomas  Cogan,  Maister  of  Artes,  in  "The  Haven  of  Health"  (1595) 
points  to  the  fact  that  "the  fleshe  of  those  fowles  which  trust  most 
to  their  winges  and  to  breed  in  high  countries  is  lighter  than  the 
fleshe  of  such  as  seldom  or  never  flies  and  be  bred  at  home." 

This  is  a 
truism  that  is  not 
sufficiently  recog- 
nized now.  Any 
one  keeping  fowls 
for  the  table  must 
be  aware  that 
unless  they  have 
their  liberty  and 
freedom  to  fiy, 
and  so  exercise 
their  wings,  it  is 
useless  to  expect 
to  find  a  large 
muscular  system, 
such  as  the  pecto- 
ral, as  when  the 
wings  are  used 
freely  and  often. 


FEET    OF    OLD    KENT    FOWL 
Once  owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


With  poultry  kept  only  for  the  production  of  eggs  it 


*  The  primary  wing  feathers. 

t  Several  of  my  old  gray-colored  Kent  and  Sussex  have  laid  this  year  (1902)  before 
they  were  six  months  old. 


434  The    Poultry    Book 

matters  little,  as  fleshy  muscular  development  is  not  needed,  nor  is  it 
generally  in  such  existence  when  the  hens  are  prolific  egg-producers. 

In  the  translation  from  the  French  by  Surflet  of  "The  Maison 
Rustique,"  1600,  occurs  the  following;  "As  concerning  and  ordering 
of  pullen,  which  is  the  cheapest  thing  that  a  good  housewife  is  to  regard, 
there  must  care  be  had  that  the  hen-house  be  every  day  made  clean,  even  so 
soon  as  the  pullen  be  out,  and  the  dung  put  aside  for  fatting  the  meadows." 
Again,  cleanliness  in  the  hen-house  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  chief 
points  tending  to  success,  and  the  frequent  destroying  of  insects  most 
essential,  nor  is  it  nearly  often  enough  put  into  practice  by  the  modem 
hen  wife  or  poultryman ;  but,  says  the  old  writer :  "  It  is  always  preferable 
to  have  baskets  for  your  hennes  to  lay  in,  inasmuch  as  you  can  take  the 
baskets,  and  by  having  a  large  lead  tank  or  cistern,  put  them  into  any 
liquid  you  may  like  to  destroy  the  insects,  then  dry,  and  put  them  back 
again  in  their  proper  positions.     You  will  find  this  a  very  excellent  plan." 

And  again  the  importance  of  fresh,  clean,  clear  water  is  urged  on 
the  housewife,  not  simply  as  a  want,  but  as  an  actual  necessity,  and  as 
not  only  one,  but  as  the  most  prominent  means  of  keeping  the  poultry 
flock  healthy.  "Their  water-pots  to  let  them  drink  must  be  kept  clean, 
and  filled  with  clean  water  every  day,  and  that  twice  in  winter  and  thrice 
in  summer.  Let  their  water  be  good  alwaies."  The  extreme  wisdom 
of  following  this  advice  must  be  manifest  to  the  most  careless,  for  it 
is  well  known  that  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  which  are  so  fatal  to  the 
human  species,  are  generally  present  in  dirty  or  sewage  water.  "Let  her 
[that  is,  the  housewife]  cause  to  be  cast  out  upon  the  dunghill  oftentimes 
fresh  straw,  right  over  against  the  barne,  where  the  pullen  used  to  scratch, 
and  neare  unto  the  same  place  let  her  cause  to  be  put  sand,  dust,  or  ashes, 
to  procure  them  the  pleasure  of  dusting  themselves  in  the  sunne  and 
preening  their  feathers."  This  is  quoted  to  show  that  all  these  things 
were  as  carefully  attended  and  looked  to  over  three  hundred  years  ago 
as  now,  and  it  might  be  added  generally  more  so.  Nearly  all  our  modern 
methods  are  only  the  old  ones  re-substituted,  even  that  of  the  incubator. 
In  the  olden  time  they  kept  fowls  and  bred  chickens  with  a  greater  certainty 
and  in  better  health  than  many  of  the  now  professed  poultrymen  of 
the   day. 

And  still  further,  writing  of  the  dunghill  cock  (1630).  Gervase  Markham 
says:     "You  shall  understand  that  the  dunghill  cock   (for  the  fighting 


The    Farm   or    Homestead   Fowl 


435 


cock  deserveth  much  larger  and  particular  discourse)  is  a  fowl  above  all 
other  birds,  the  most  manlyest,  stately,  and  majesticall,  very  tame  and 
familiar  with  man,  and  naturally  inclined  to  live  and  prosper  in  hospitable 
houses."*  This  was  in  Markham's  time  possibly  the  case,  or  at  least 
before  that,  because  the  kitchen  was  not  infrequently  a  roosting-place 
for  the  poultry.  Chaucer  mentions  this  in  the  "Nun's  Tale,"  as  regards 
Chanticlere.     But   further,    Markham   describes   the   cock   as   "hot   and 


DARK    OLD    KENT    AND    SUSSEX    FOUR-TOED    PULLET 


strong  for  generation,  and  will  serve  ten  hens  sufficiently,  and  some  twelve 
and  thirteen;  he  delighteth  in  open  and  liberal  plains,  where  he  may 
lead  forth  his  hens  into  green  pastures  and  under  hedges,  where  they 
warm  and  bathe  themselves  in  the  sun,  for  to  be  penned  up  in  walled 
places  or  in  paved  courts  is  most  unnatural  to  them,  neither  will  they 
prosper    therein." 

"Now  for  the  hen,"  says  Gervase  Markham,  "if  she  be  good,  she 

*May  not  this  have  reference  to  "household  pieces,"  which  too  often   are  plentiful 
when  provisions  are  abundant? 


436 


The    Poultry    Book 


should  not  differ  much  from  the  nature  of  the  cock,  but  be  valiant,  and 
laborious,  both  for  herself  and  her  chickens."  (This  is  self-evident,  and 
should  be  an  almost  indispensable  quality  in  every  barn-door  hen.)     "  Her 

shape — the  biggest 
and  largest  are  the 
best,  every  pro- 
portion answering 
those  described  of 
the  cock,  only 
instead  of  her 
comb  she  should 
have  upon  her 
crown  a  high, 
thick  tuft  of 
feathers ;  to  have 
many  strong  claws 
is  good,  but  to 
want  their  hinder 
claws  is  better,  for 
they  oft  break 
their  eggs,  and 
such  hens  some- 
times prove  unnatural."  (Perhaps  he  means  by  this  that  the  spurred 
hens  crow,  which  is  not  infrequently  the  case,  but  nevertheless  they  lay 
well  and  are  excellent  mothers.)  He  continues,  however,  "It  is  not  good 
to  choose  a  crowing  hen." 


■  by  Harrison  fVtir 


OLD-STYLE    KENT    FIVE-TOED    HEN 


Old  Barn-door  Fowls 

Having  traced  the  red,  tawny,  black,  and  gray  fowl  through  the 
Middle  Ages  in  reference  to  color,  form,  and  usefulness,  it  will  be  well 
to  show  its  importance  as  part  of  the  live  stock  of  the  farm,  and  as  the 
luxurious  food  of  the  lord,  the  landowner,  or  the  wealthy.  As  stated 
before,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt,  if  any,  that  the  Romans  bred  both 
Game-  or  fighting-cocks,  as  well  as  the  magnificent  domestic  fowl  which 
have  been  so  carefully  and  minutely  described  by  Columella  and  Pliny. 
Each  author  quoted  gives  the  outHne  of  form  and  color  of  the  particular 
and  much-to-be-desired  breed  of  his  time  as  the  best,  in  terms  almost 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl  437 

identical  with  the  Game-cock.  Though  possibly  not  proved,  still  it  is 
rightly  supposed  that  the  Romans,  when  in  England,  had  this  very  breed 
about  their  farms  and  villas,  while  it  is  a  most  curious  fact  that  only  the 
bones  of  the  Game-  or  fighting-cock  have  been  discovered.  Later,  the 
Anglo-Saxons  must  have  kept  them,  as  the  bondmen,  "borderius,"  or 
small  farmers  had  the  care  of  the  poultry  to  supply  the  table  or  "board" 
of  their  lord  and  master,  and  their  farms  they  held  as  bordlands,  from 
whence  they  furnished  eggs,  poultry,  and  other  cibarious  produce.  Rent 
was  likewise  paid  either  in  service  or  land-produc^,  as  was  also  the  case 
in  A.D.  1066.  It  w^as,  however,  found  far  easier  to  collect  the  manorial 
dues  once  for  all  in  coin  than  to  ensure  the  various  services  of  work,  and 
boon  work,  and  the  payments  of  seed,  fowls,  geese,  or  eggs — though  they 
were  faithfully  rendered.  Of  such  importance  were  fowls  as  articles  of 
food  and  commerce  that  from  very  early  times  they  are  to  be  found 
included  as  part  of  the  fines  and  rent-charge  of  lands  and  tenements, 
numerous  documents  being  still  in  existence  attesting  the  fact.  As  notes 
from  some  of  these  may  prove  interesting,  I  will  give  some  extracts  from 
the  "Kent  Archaeological  Society's  Transactions"  (though  there  are 
entries  of  fines  elsewhere  of  a  much  earlier  date),  giving  simply  the  number 
under  which  they  are  tabulated,  and  omitting  details  foreign  to  my  purpose : 

Vol.  XIII.     8th  of  King  Edward  II. 

(384)  ;^i  IIS.  6d.  rent,  and  rent  of  lo  cocks  and  30  hens  and  appur- 
tenances. 

(421)  ;^4  75.  4tl  rent,  and  rent  of  one  ploughshare,  7  cocks,  48  hens, 
2  geese,  and  392  eggs  and  appurtenances. 

(438)  35.  rent,  and  rent  of  5  hens  and  pasturage  for  15  two-year-old 
sheep. 

(445)  The  fourth  part  of  57^.  lold.  rent,  and  rent  of  a  fourth  part 
of  19^  hens  and  190  eggs. 

Vol.  XV.     17TH  of  King  Edward  II. 

(753)  At  Westminster,  i  messuage  of  250  acres,  10  acres  of  wood, 
2  15.  rent,  and  rent  of  17  hens  with  appurtenances. 

(761)  ;^4  rent,  and  rent  of  4  cocks,  100  hens,  and  100  eggs. 

(771)  Sixth  part  of  35.  M.  rent,  and  rent  of  i  cock  and  3  hens  with 
appurtenances. 

(805)   34.S.  rent,  and  rent  of  20  hens,  etc. 


438 


The  Poultry  Book 


(806)  3s.  rent,  and  rent  of  4  hens  and  36  eggs,  etc. 

(892)   20s.  rent,  and  rent  of  2  cocks- and  10  hens  with  appurtenances. 

(894)   loos.  rent,  and  rent  of  21  hens  and  200  eggs,  etc. 

These  are  a  few  covenants  out  of  many,  and  are  only  given  to  show 
that  there  must  have  been  a  certain  evenness  of  quahty,  size,  and  value  in 
poultry  throughout  this  period,  so  as  to  be  a  recognized  staple  for  barter, 
purchase,  or  rental.  Some  of  these  entries  are  quaint,  such  as  that  relating 
to  a  fourth  part  of  19^  hens,  rendering  the  division  somewhat  difficult 
in  the  way  of  dividing.,  the  half  a  hen  into  four  parts.  Other  entries  are 
even  still  more  interesting,  for  Hume,  in  his  "  History  of  England"  (which 
is  reproduced  in  the  "Tunbridge  Wells  Guide"  of  1701).  states  that 
"the  Lady  of  a  former  Lord  of  Abergavenny  offered  the  King  a 
bribe  of  two  hundred  hens  if   she   might    be    allowed    to    be  with  her 


KENT    BARN-DOOR   SPURRED    HEN 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl  439 

husband  but  a  short  time,  who  it  is  presumed  was  confined  or 
imprisoned  for  some  reason." 

The  tithes  of  Yaldham,  Kent,  from  140  acres  of  land  were  given  by 
Godfried  de  Cos  to  the  monks  of  St.  Andrew,  Rochester,  and  continued 
m  tlie  possession  of  the  priory  until  its  dissolution.  They  were  afterward 
presented  to  the  dean  and  chapter,  who  let  them  for  twenty-one  years 
for  65.  8>d.  and  two  fat  capons. 

Again,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (De  Banco  Roll, 
Michaelmas  term) :  To  wit,  Henry  Ffynche  [now  spelled  Finch]  in  his 
proper  person  demands  against  Thomas  Grovehurst  and  Joan  his  wife, 
the  Manor  of  Ore,  Gondhurst,*  and  Hadlow,  w^ith  appurtenances,  also 
300  acres  of  land,  40  acres  of  meadow,  200  acres  of  pasture,  40  acres  of 
wood,  300  acres  of  marsh,  and  40s.  rent;  also  rent  of  5  cocks,  20  hens,  and 
200  eggs,  etc.,  etc. — "Kent  Archccological  Society's  Transactions," 
Vol.  XIII.,  page  330. 

This  is  given  in  extenso  to  show  the  curious  distinction  made  between 
land,  meadow,  and  pasture.  One  more  illustration  of  the  strange  way 
the  farmers  paid  their  rents  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  is  from 
Chambers' s  Journal,  September  4,  1897. 

Abstract  of  rental  of  the  real  estate  of  James,  late  Earl  Panmure: 

£     s.    d. 

Money  rent  payable  in  money 1,843   ^7  "^ 

Then  follows  botts  of  wheat,  barley,  oatmeal,  etc  ....  1,586      1  8J 

Geese,  8,  at  is.  each 8  o 

Capons,  458,  at  bd.  each 11     9  o 

Chickens,  456,  at  i  \d.  each 217  o 

Hens,  31 2 J,  at  3(i.  each 318  i\ 

etc.,  etc. 

Here  again  we  get  half  a  hen  rendered  and  valued.  How  could  this 
have  been  accomplished?  It  must  have  been  a  difficult  task  to  dispose 
of  such  stock  to  advantage.  Yet  the  method  of  payment  partly  in  kind 
still  existed  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  does  so  in  a  few  cases  at  the 
present  time.  However,  these  excerpts  show  our  poultry  was  by  no  means 
a  neglected  farm  product  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  was  carefully 
selected,  tended,  and  used  as  being  of  a  certain  monetary  value  or  exchange. 

In  a  "Treatise  on  Husbandry,"  written  by  Maystre  Groshede  (Great- 
head  or  Grossteste),  sometime  Bishop  of  Lyncoln,  entitled  "  Reules  Sayns 
Robert,"  made  and  translated  out  of  the  French  into  English,  and   con- 

*  Now  Gotidhurst. 


440 


The    Poultry    Book 


sisting  of  twenty-eight  practical  maxims — compiled  by  the  learned  bishop 
for  the  guidance  of  Margaret,  Countess  of  Lincoln,  who  was  left  a  widow 

A.D.  1240  —  it 
appears  that 
instructions 
were  to  be 
given  t  o  the 
farm  bailiff. 
From  the 
wording  it  is 
conclusive  a  s 
to  the  yield 
and  profit  that 
were  expected 
from  w  e  1 1  - 
selected  poul- 
try, which  were 
to  be  rented : 
Fy ve  hennes 
and  a  cocke  for 
III5-.  in  a  yere, 
and  there  be 
some  baylyfs 
and  d  e  y  e  s  * 
that  may  say 
nay  to  thys 
prouff}'tes. 

But  I  shall  preue  it  by  reason,  for  in  halfe  a  yere  be  XXM  weeks, 
and  in  those  XXVI  weeks  IX  score  dayes,  and  in  eche  of  these 
dayes  shall  have  an  egge  of  eche  henne  in  that  half  yere,  it  is  a  feble 
sale,  and  XXX  eggs  be  not  worth  a  penny."  As  before  remarked, 
the  fowls  kept  for  many  centuries,  and  described  by  writers  on  the 
subject,  were  apparently  imequaled  in  form,  flesh,  and  large  full 
breast  by  any  cross-breeds  of  this  half  of  the  present  century.  Yet 
we  have  had  these   same   old   English  farm-  or  dunghill  fowls  described 


OLD    SUSSEX    COCK 
Owneii  by  Mrs.  Iillis 


*  A  female  servant  that  had  charge   of   the    dairj^    and    all  pertaining  to  it, 
cases  a  man  seeing  to  the  same  work. 


The    Farm    or    Homestead    Fowl 


441 


as  delicate,  bad  layers,  and  unfertile;  but  here  is  Bishop  Groshead  telling 
of  the  poultry  of  A.D.  1253,  that  besides  these  excellences  of  size,  form, 
and  colors  they  were  also  good  layers — 180  from  a  good  table-fowl  in 
half  a  year  is  a  number  that  most  of  our  modern  hens  fail  to  produce. 

Nor  does  it  appear  that  they  were  much  inclined  for  incubation,  for 
the  Bishop  puts  in  by  way  of  parenthesis :  ' '  And  yf  ony  of  theym  syt  in 
that  half  a  yere  or  in  some  daye  in  defaulte  of  lyenge,  ye  shall  be  recom- 
pensed therefor,  and  of  VI  more  to  bere  out  the  ferme  ye  cocks  and  wt 
the  sale  of  chikens  y"^  syttynge  hennes  brynge  forthe  in  that  other  half 
yere."  Evidently  from  this  the  first  half-year's  eggs  were  by  no  means 
all  that  were  laid,  and  if  not,  these  "old-time  hennes"  are  not  equaled 
by  our  modern  mongrels  in  any  respect.  He  concludes:  "Every  henne 
shall  answere  you  of  IX  score  egges  or  of  chikens  to  ye  value." 

As  regards  the  prices  of  poultry  in  a.d  1261,  capons  were  2'hd.,  cocks 
^d.,  hens  i^d.  In  A.D.  1326  they  rose  to — capons  T,d.,  cocks  ijd.,  pullets 
id. ;  and  in  the 
time  of  the 
famine ,  A.D. 
1368-70— 
capons  4J., 
cocks  2^d., 
hens  2d.,  pul- 
lets i^d.  These 
prices  ruled 
with  only  a 
little  deflec- 
tion until  A.D. 
1400-20,  w^hen 
food  again 
becoming 
scarce  they 
rose;  and 
Kentish  capons 
are  frequently 
quoted    at     a 

higher  price  than  the  ordinary  capons,  in  some  cases  being  of 
double  the  value.     No   mention  is   anywhere   made  of    Sussex   as   being 


^^,^ 


OLD    SUSSEX    HEN 
Owned  by  Mrs.  Ellis 


442  The    Poultry    Book 

good,  nor  is  "Dorking"  accredited  with  fowls  of  any  particular  merit — 
in  fact,  with  none  at  all. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  well  to  give  an  idea  of  the  general  state  of  agri- 
culture and  farm  produce  of  England  over  three  centuries  ago.  Here 
are  some  passages  of  a  book  entitled  "A  Compendious  or  Brief  Exammation 
of  certayne  Ordinary  Complaints  of  divers  our  Countrymen  in  these  our 
Dayes."  It  was  written  by  W.  S.  (William  Stafford),  gentleman,  and 
was  for  a  time  erroneously  ascribed  to  Shakespeare.  It  bears  the  date  of 
1 581,  and  treats  in  dialogue  of  the  depressed  state  of  the  country  at  that 
period,  and  of  the  great  dearth  then  existing,  and  its  supposed  causes. 
Here  is  the  gentleman's  (a  knight)  complaint  against  the  husbandman, 
in  which  we  get  the  value  of  farm  stock  at  this  period : 

"And  I  say  it  is  long  of  you  husbandmen,  that  wee  are  forced  to 
rayse  our  rents  by  reason  wee  must  buy  so  deere  all  things  that  wee  have 
of  you:  as  corne,  cattell,  goose,  pig,  capon,  chicken,  butter,  and  egges. 
What  thing  is  there  of  all  these  but  that  yee  sell  it  now  deerer  by  the  one 
half  than  yee  did  within  these  XXX  yeares  ?  I  could  in  this  towne  [London] 
buy  the  best  pig,  or  goose,  that  I  could  lay  my  hand  on,  for  fourepence, 
which  now  costeth  twelvepence,  a  good  capon  for  threepence  or  four- 
pence,  a  chicken  for  id.  [one  penny],  a  hen  for  iiJ.  [twopence],  which 
costeth  me  double  and  triple  ye  money;  it  is  likewise  in  greater  ware, 
as  biefe  and  mutton."  The  husbandman  answers:  "  I  graimt  that,  but  I 
say  you  and  your  sorte,  men  of  lande,  are  the  first  cause  hereof  by  reason 
you  rayse  your  landes. "  The  knight  offers  to  lower  the  rent  if  the  other 
will  reduce  the  price  of  the  food,  which  the  latter  ultimately  refuses. 

Further  on  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  profit  the  husbandman  attributes 
to  his  live  stock  in  comparison  to  his  corn,  for  he  answers:  "And  to  say 
the  very  truth,  I  that  have  inclosed  little  or  nothing  of  my  grounde,  could 
never  be  able  to  make  up  my  lorde's  rent  were  it  not  for  a  little  herd  that 
I  have  of  neate,*  sheepe,  swyne,  geese,  and  hennes,  that  I  do  rear  on  my 
ground;  whereof,  because  the  price  is  somewhat  round,  I  make  more 
clear  profit  than  I  doe  of  all  my  corne."  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  even 
over  three  hundred  years  ago  corn-growing  was  not  looked  on  with  more 
favor  by  the  farmers  than  at  the  present,  though  they  grew,  besides 
their  cattle,  poultry  to  advantage,  as  doubtless  may  yet  be  done. 

Presently  the  Doctor  (scholar  and  parson)  speaks,  and  after  enumer- 

*  Cattle. 


The    Farm  or    Homestead    Fowl  443 

ating  the  value  of  various  goods  says:  "Then  the  more  husbandry  there 
is  occupied,  the  more  universal  breede  should  be  of  all  victuals  of  meate, 
sheepe,  swine,  geese,  hennes,  capons,  and  chickens;  for  all  these  are  reared 
much  on  corne."  It  appears,  then,  that  the  argument  for  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  poultry  would  be  equally  apphcable  at  the  present  time; 
and  it  is  my  firm  belief  that  this  particular  live  stock  of  the  farm  was 
then  more  even  and  finer  in  quality  than  those  of  the  ordinary  farmer 
of  to-day;  which  if  more  imderstood,  as  a  high-class  food  production, 
better  prices  would  be  realized,  consequently  a  larger  degree  of  profit.  As 
to  the  value  of  poultry,  and  the  quantity  provided  at  the  numerous  feasts 
of  the  middle  and  later  ages,  it  will  be  best  to  follow  up  the  fine  old  EngHsh 
breeds  of  fowls  gradually  with  regard  to  their  marks,  value,  and  locality. 

Horsham  was  a  parliamentary  borough  from  the  year  1295,  and  a 
market-town.  In  1697  (more  than  two  hundred  years  ago)  "The  Traveller's 
Almanack"  mentions  the  market  as  being  held  on  Saturday;  and  in  1770 
a  gazetteer  describes  it  as  having  been  granted,  by  King  John,  and  having 
great  store  of  poultry,  usually  bought  up  for  the  London  market.  The 
Horsham  poultry  market  in  1837  was  held  on  Mondays  at  "The  Black 
Horse,"  where  a  considerable  number  of  poultry  changed  hands. 

"Kent  was  celebrated  for  its  capons  centuries  ago,  and  in  a  lesser 
degree  Sussex.  Dorking  became  known  as  a  fatting  center  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  fowls  for  which  it  afterward  became 
so  celebrated  mostly  coming  from  Kent  and  Sussex,  and  it,  like  these 
also,  may  have  derived  the  white  breed  for  which  the  district  became 
noted  from  the  Romans.*  The  great  causeway  called  Stoney  Street 
passes  through  Dorking  Churchyard.  Dorking  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Canute  or  the  Normans.  This  place  is  famous 
for  its  meat  trade  and  its  market  for  poultry,  particularly  for  the  largest 
geese  and  the  fattest  capons,  which  are  brought  hither  from  Horsham 
in  Sussex;  and  the  whole  business  of  the  people,  for  many  miles,  consists 
in  breeding  and  fattening;  its  market  is  on  Thursdays." 

An  old  friend  of  long  ago,  who  lived  at  Dorking  and  well  knew  its 
history,  once  mentioned  to  me  the  fact  that  incredible  numbers  of  fowls 
were  sold  in  Dorking.  Upon  my  questioning  him  as  to  what  they  were, 
etc.,  he  said  that  mostly  they  were  not  bred  at  Dorking,  but  came  from 
Sussex,  and  Horsham  market  in  particular. 

*  Vide  "Environs  of  London,"  A.D.    1761. 


444  The    Poultry    Book 

From  this  and  what  is  to  be  gathered  from  various  other  rehable 
sources  it  is  pretty  certain  that  Dorking  was  only  a  fattening  station  Hke 
Uckfield,  Waldron,  Heathfiekl,  Handcross,  some  places  in  Kent,  and 
Boston  in  Lincolnshire;  and  the  fowls  coming  from  these  might  just  as 
well,  and  with  the  same  propriety,  be  called  Heathfields,  Waldrons,  etc.. 
Or  Bostons;  they  are  so  in  the  dead  markets,  but  not  as  a  distinctive  breed. 
The  Dorkings,  as  a  breed,  have  got  a  reputation  entirely  from  the  slovenly 
writings  of  several  authors,  who  have  simply  echoed  the  previous  one 
without  inquiry  or  verification,  while  the  Kent  fowls  are  historical.  Of 
Kent,  centuries  ago,  it  was  said :  "  The  Weald  for  wood ;  East  Kent  for  com ; 
Romney  for  meadow ;  Tenham  for  an  orchard ;  Sheppey  and  Reculvers  for 
wheat;  Thanet  for  barley;  and  Headcorn  for  the  brood  of  big,  fat,  and 
commended  capons"    ("British   Curiosities  in   iVrt   and   Nature,"    1728). 

Mr.  Ferguson,  in  his  excellent  book  on  fowls,  1854,  gives  the  following 
item  of  interest :  "  That  a  breed  bearing  much  resemblance  to  our  Dorking, 
both  for  external  appearance  and  internal  qualities,  as  well  as  possessing 
the  additional  claw,  has  long  been  propagated  in  the  town  of  Dorking  is 
conclusive.  I  have  before  me  a  list  of  the  fowls  remitted  to  market  by  a 
farmer  living  there,  from  June  to  August,  A.D.  1683,  comprising: 

1 7  dozen 5  claws,   dead  stock 

I        "       4 

I       "       5        "  live  stock" 

From  this  we  observe  the  five-clawed  fowls  were  well  known  in  that 
locality,  and  at  that  comparatively  early  date  appear  to  have  been  more 
numerously  kept  than  the  four-clawed  ones,  at  any  rate  by  this  individual.* 
I  also  discover  from  the  original  manuscript  that  the  price  for  the  one 
dozen  five-clawed  ones  (alive)  was  ijearly  three  times  the  amount  of  the 
dead  stock.  It  was  therefore  at  that  time,  as  until  lately  has  been  the 
case,  "the  breeders  were  determined,  if  possible,  to  monopolize  the  trade." 
Here  Mr.  Ferguson  does  not  seem  to  be  aware,  or  has  not  taken  into  con- 
sideration, that  all  the  southern  fowls  at  least  were  more  or  less  five- 
clawed,  and  thus  described  by  Gervase  Markham  in  the  early  part  of  the 
same  century;  so  the  argument  of  the  five-clawed  being  a  breed  peculiar 
to  Dorking  utterly  falls  to  the  ground.  The  four-toed  birds  were  most 
likely  a  cross  between  the  old  English  Game  and  the  ordinary  barn-door, 

*  This  confutes  the  oft-repeated  statement  that  four-toed  fowls  were  unknown  in  the 
real  and  old   "Dorking"   breed. 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl 


445 


SUSSEX    BARN-DOOR    FOWL 
Sixty  years  since 


many  white-shanked  Game-cocks  being  "at  walk"  about  the  farms  and 
homesteads  of  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey.  The  live  fowls  being  sold 
for  more  than  the  dead  is  no  criterion  of  price,  the  first  possibly  being 
matured  and  good  breeding  stock,  while  those  dead  were  the  refuse,  and 
killed  as  being  of  no  value  ahve.  "Stih,"  continues  Mr.  Ferguson,  "it  is 
evident  that  the  town  of  Dorking  and  its  suburbs  are  now,  as  heretofore, 
not  only  more  suitable,  from  the  nature  of  the  soil,  to  the  rearing  and 
breeding  of  this  class  of  fowl,  but  every  other  thrives  unusually  well  there." 
In  this  there  is  the  error  that  this  breed  of  five-clawed  fowl  throve  better 
at  Dorking  than  elsewhere ;  for  Kent  produced  better,  and  Sussex,  as  noted, 
reared  large   quantities,   which,   being  taken  to   Horsham  market,   were 


446 


The    Poultry    Book 


purchased  to  be  fattened  at  Dorking  and  then  sent  away  as  the  particular 
breed  of  the  town ;  and  when,  as  further  proof,  the  breed  was  sought  for 
to  exhibit  (circa  1850),  the  best  southern  birds  came  from  Kent  and  Sussex, 
and  in  the  north  some  from  Lancashire  and  even  Scotland.  It  is  indeed 
surprising  how  long  and  persistently  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  some 
writers  about  our  poultry  to  attach  an  undue,  an  undeserved  and  inaccurate 
importance  to  the  town  of  Dorking  m  connection  with  fine  and  excellent 
white-shanked,  five-toed,  colored  fowls,  and  those  of  Kent  and  Sussex, 
when,  as  has  been  shown,  most  of  these  were  bought  at  Horsham.  And 
further,  history  points  to  the  fact  that  such  fowls  have  for  centuries  always 
been  plentiful  in  our  southern  counties,  and  not  only  used  as  food,  but 
also  as  articles  of  barter  and  commerce. 


WHITE-SHANKED    AND   SPANGLED    PARTRIDGE   GAME   HEN 
Style  often  used  to  cross  with  the  old  four  ined  an  1  other  barn-door  fowls 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl  447 

In  Italy  five-toed  fowls  have  long  existed ;  also  m  France,  as  several 
French  writers  affirm,  and  who  are  quoted,  so  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Spain ;  and  yet  with  regret  one  sees  it  asserted  that  these,  and  more  especially 
those  m  England,  in  some  way  owe  their  origin  to  the  town  of  Dorking, 
the  writers  failing  to  see  the  absurdity  of  the  theory.  It  is  an  entire 
misnomer  and  an  utter  fallacy  to  call  our  fine  old  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey 
fowls  all  Dorkings,  nor  were  they  thus  called  until  about  1850,  previously 
only  the  rose-combed  whites  being  so  considered.  Even  now  so  little 
is  known  concerning  our  poultry  by  those  "in  office  "  that  not  infrequently 
schedules  are  made  out  and  prizes  offered  for  Sussex  and  Surrey  fowls 
with  those  of  Kent  omitted,  which  was  one  of  if  not  the  very  best  breeds, 
and  quite  equal  to  anything  in  the  former  counties.  Such  omissions, 
wilful  or  otherwise,  lead  to  the  strong  suspicion  that  many  of  our  best 
show-prize  birds  are  the  outcome  of  a  combat  of  interests. 

In  the  "General  View  of  Agriculture  in  the  County  of  Kent,  1805," 
Mr.  John  Boys  writes  of  the  Kent  poultry  thus:  "Geese  and  turkeys, 
fowls  and  ducks,  are  bred  in  the  county  sufficiently  to  supply  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  a  few  to  spare  for  the  supply  of  the  shipping  that  sailed  from 
Faversham  and  the  Downs."  He  goes  on  to  say  that  the  price  of  poultry 
is  very  much  increased  within  the  last  few  years ;  turkeys  now  sell  as  high 
as  65-.  and  js.,  geese  *  4s.  to  55.  each,  and  ducks  and  fowls  at  35.  6d.  to  45. 
I  believe  I  am  correct  in  saying  that  this  Mr.  John  Boys  was  an  ancestor  of 
the  Reverend  John  Boys,  who  became,  with  his  "old  Kents,"  a  prominent 
prize-winner  in  the  early  fifties  of  the  last  century.  This  brings  the  breed 
of  the  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  Dorking  fowls  down  to  the  institution  of 
poultry  shows,  and  to  the  time  when  such  fowls,  which  have  been  carefully 
noted  and  described  by  numerous  authors,  were  those  so  long  cherished 
and  kept  in  the  southern  counties.  It  will  be  my  next  duty  to  show  what 
they  then  were,  and  how  they  at  once  not  only  took  a  high  position,  but 
were  eagerly  sought  for  on  their  merits  as  high-class  fowls,  being  raised  in 
Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  by  the  farmers'  wives  and  daughters  from  genera- 
tion to  generation ;  and  many  is  the  time  I  have  heard  wordy  altercations 
as  to  the  particular  qualities  and  values  of  certain  birds  to  be  bred  from 
or  not.  My  own  relatives  had  stocks  of  such  good  and  true  old  Kent  and 
also  Sussex  fowls  as  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  find  now ;  and  there 

*  These  then  were  small,  seldom  weighing  more  than  nine  to  twelve  pounds;  the 
last  being  considered  a  very  good  goose  even  so  late  as  about  1830-40. 


448  The  Poultry  Book 

was  nothing  on  the  different  farms  and  homesteads  that  received  and 
merited  more  attention.  Some  of  the  land,  both  in  Sussex  and  Kent, 
having  been  family  property  for  centuries,  the  poultry  was  as  jealously 
guarded — almost  as  heirlooms.  The  colors  at  one  farm  were  nearly 
white,  with  black  in  the  hackles  and  tails;  another  flock  was  entirely 
cuckoo-colored;  two  kept  to  the  old  red  and  tawnies;  three  had  mealy 
grays  (these  were  very  large)  and  one  had  light  browns;  all  were  very 
white  in  the  shank  and  feet,  with  five  toes  and  white  toe-nails ;  the  ear-lobes 
were  large  and  nearly  white,  with  a  pink  weather-tinge  at  the  lower  part. 
Until  the  importation  of  the  Cochin  there  were  no  farm  fowls  with  red 
ear-lobes  as  now — they  were  truer  bred ;  a  red  ear-lobe  shows  decidedly  a 
cross-breed.  These  were  kept  by  farmers — friends  of  mine — who,  one 
and  all,  were  equally  proud  of  their  other  stocks  of  poultry.  One  family 
in  particular  often  boasted  that  they  had  kept  the  same  breed  over  a 
century;  they  were  dark  reddish  browns.  Others  kept  black  speckles; 
some  red  and  some  gray  speckles,  and  mealy  grays,  with  a  variety  nearly 
black.  On  the  grass  land  about  the  house  might  be  seen  in  early  spring 
long  lines  of  the  old  style  of  Sussex-made  coops  with  the  hens  under  them, 
and  quantities  of  strong,  healthy  chickens  running  about  or  creeping  in 
to  nestle  beneath  the  full-breasted,  well -feathered,"  kindly  mother  hen; 
such  were  our  Kent  and  Sussex  farm  fowls  much  more  than  sixty  years 
ago  as  I  knew  them,  saw  them,  fed  them,  and  sketched  them  at  our  own 
home.  Some  of  the  breeds  had  been  for  centuries  carefully  mated  and 
bred — not  neglected,  as  has  been  erroneously  and  ignorantly  stated ;  but 
to  my  own  knowledge  their  shape,  color,  and  qualities  as  table,  egg- 
layers,  and  high-priced  market  fowls  were  well  attended  to,  the  owners 
being  as  proud  of  their  poultry,  and  possibly  more  so,  as  nine-tenths  of 
the  prize-winners  at  the  now  fashionable  poultry  shows. 

There  were  several  reasons  for  this,  of  which  nearly  all  the  writers 
on  the  subject  are  obvious — namely,  that  in  the  corn -growing  districts 
especially  the  "tail-wheat"  sif tings  and  winnowings  were  the  perquisites 
of  either  the  farm  housewife  or  the  daughters,  and  by  them  used  for  the 
keeping  and  rearing  of  poultry;  for  generally  it  was  the  proceeds  from 
the  sale  of  chickens,  poultry,  and  eggs  that  they  relied  on  as  the  source 
not  only  of  pocket-money,  but  of  actual  clothing  and  other  wants.  These 
were  by  no  means  isolated  cases,  while  not  infrequently  the  general 
expenditure  of  the  house  was  provided  for  entirely  by  the  sale  of  dairy 


The    Farm   or    Homestead    Fowl 


449 


J 

WHITE-SPANGLED,    BLACK-BREASTED,    BRIGHT-RED    OLD    KENT    AND    SUSSEX    FIVE-TOED   HEN 


produce  and  of  the  fowls.  Thus  it  was  that  our  southern  farm  poultry 
received  such  considerable  attention  and  was  so  carefully  bred.  In  some 
districts  only  certain  colors  were  to  be  found,  though  all  bore  the  same 
analogy  to  each  other  in  point  of  form,  being  square,  full-breasted,  with 
good  legs  and  thighs,  large-winged  and  strong  flyers,  and  were  like    to, 


450 


The    Poultry    Book 


in  almost  every  respect,  those  described  by  Columella  nearly  two  thousand 
years  ago;  and  this  was  not  to  be  wondered  at  so  much,  for,  if  introduced 
by  the  Romans,  the  belief  of  Kent  and  Sussex  men  is  that  they  were  not 
crossed  and  spoiled  with  other  and  foreign  varieties,  as  is  the  craze  now 
to  do.  For  this  reason  they  bred  their  birds  chiefly  "  in-and-m  "  or  not  out 
of  their  district,  as  they  had  not  the  means  of  either  hearmg  of,  seeing, 
or  getting  any  other  kmds  but  their  old  breeds,  that  had  been  kept  on  or 
about  the  various  farm  holdings  or  independent  lands 


From  a  phuiigrupit 


DARK    DORKING    COCK 
Owned  and  bred  by  Herbert  Keeves.     The  winner  ot  many  priz 


WHITE     DORKINGS. 


KENT,  SUSSEX,  SURREY,  AND  DORKING  FOWLS 

"Old  fashions  please  me  best;  I  am  not  so  nice, 
To  change  true  rules  for  odd  inventions." — Taming  of  the  Shrew. 

ONNINGTON  MOWBRAY  (John  Lawrence),  writing  in 
1824  of  the  Darking  (or  Dorking)  fowl,  says:  "It  is  so 
called  from  a  town  in  Surrey,  where  probably  the  variety 
was  first  bred,  and  where  and  m  its  vicinity  they  are  to  be 
foiind  in  great  plenty  and  perfection.  It  is  in  a  third  degree 
the  largest  of  our  fowls,  well  shaped,  having  a  long,  capacious  body  and 
short  legs,  and  is  a  plentiful  layer."  * 

This  is  precisely  the  description  of  the  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey 
fowls  given  previously,  which  is  not  in  any  way  peculiar  to  the  Dorking, 
nor  is  the  fifth  toe.  Mowbray  states;  "The  genuine  color,  entire  white; 
chief  distinctive  mark,  five  claws  upon  each  foot."  He  adds  that  "the 
white  is  not  so  pure  as  certain  of  the  dunghill  fowls,  nor  is  the  flesh,  that 
inclining  to  yellow  or  ivory  shade ;  the  Darkings  are  the  species  generally 
made  into  capons." 

Any  one  reading  this  would  doubtless  be  led  to  believe  that  the  cock- 
erels of  this  breed  were  those  principally  used  for  caponizing,  whereas  the 
Kents  and  other  southern  breeds  were  so  noted  for  centuries;  and  the 
prices  also  for  such  capons  are  given  in  Professor  Thorold  Rogers's  excellent 
book  of  "Ancient  Mediasval  Values  of  Farming  Stock,"  occurring  as  far 
back  as  the  thirteenth  century.  Again,  Mr.  Mowbray  states  that  an 
attempt  was  made  to  deprive  Dorking  of  the  honor  of  the  breed,  etc. 
"The  surveyor  pretends  that  the  Dorking  fowls  were  all  raised  in  the 
Weald  of  Sussex,  and  that  Horsham  is  the  chief  market  for  them." 

This,  as  has  been  shown,  was  undoubtedly  the  case.  Further  he 
says:  "No  doubt  it  is  probable  that  having  five  claws  accidentally 
brought  certain  fine  and  well-formed  individuals  into  notice,  but  from 
these   proceeded   a   distinguished   permanent   variety,    and   that   variety 

*  Here  it  should  be  noted  that  Mowbray  mentions  the  Dorking  as  in  the  third  degree 
the  largest  of  our  fowls. 

451 


452 


The    Poultry    Book 


bearing  the  name  of  Dorking  seems  a  sufficient  proof  of  that  town  and  its 
neighborhood."  This  is  fairly  jumping  at  a  conclusion.  As  to  the  five 
toes,  they  were  the  common  appendage,  not  only  of  the  fowls  of  Kent, 
Sussex,  and  Surrey,  but  also  of  other  breeds,  of  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
etc.     How,   then,   could  this  form  be  noted  as  distinctive?     To  make 


COCKEREL   AND    PULLET,    OLD-STYLE    PRIZE    DORKING    OF    1S53 


the  Statement  even  more  doubtful,  presently,  when  writing  of  the  Polands, 
he  asserts:  "Perhaps  the  genuine  sort  has  always  five  claws,*  and  as 
the  Poland  cock  will  produce  occasionally  white  stock  from  white  English 
hens,  it  is  not  impossible,  the  similarity  of  form  Hkewise  considered,  that 

*  I  have  seen  Polands  not  only  with  live  toes,  but  also  "spurred"  like  a  cock.  A 
hen  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Show,  in  1900,  had  a  very  large  spur  on  one  shank  only,  and  no 
indication  of  one  on  the  other. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking   Fowls     453 

our  famous  Dorking  breed  may  have  been  originally  from  that  cross, 
and,  supposing  such  speculations  groundless,  the  Dorking,  differing  as  it 
does  from  the  common,  may  have  been  an  imported  breed." 

This  is  what  Mr.  John  Timbs,  F.S.A.,  author  of  "Things  Not  Generally 
Known,"  and  who  lived  some  years  at  Dorking,  says  in  his  valuable 
description  of  Dorking,  1824:  "An  incredible  quantity  of  poultry  is 
usually  sold  at  the  weekly  markets.  This  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands 
of  a  few  individuals,  who  regularly  attend  and  supply  the  London  dealers. 
There  is  also  a  breed  of  fowls  with  five  claws,  well  know^n  among  the  poul- 
terers of  the  metropolis  by  the  appellation  of  '  Dorking  fowls ' ;  one  sort 
is  perfectly  white  and  another  of  a  partridge  color.  Columella,  in  his 
'Husbandry,'  describes  fowls  of  this  kind;  and  it  is  conjectured  that  they 
were  originally  brought  here  by  the  Romans."  Knowing  Air.  John  Timbs, 
I  asked  if  these  fowls  were  all  bred  at  or  about  Dorking,  when  he  told 
me  that  many  were  brought  from  long  distances  to  the  town  to  be  sold, 
and  that  by  no  means  all  or  anything  like  it  had  five  toes,  and  he  fully 
agreed  with  me  that  they  were  precisely  the  same  breeds  as  the  Kents 
and  Sussex,  and  that  they  also  were  brought  over  by  the  Romans. 

Mr.  Walter  B.  Dickson,  writing  of  this  bird  in  1847,  says:  "These 
fowls,  which  form  the  principal  supply  of  the  London  market,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  five  toes  instead  of  four  on  each  foot."  Nor  does 
he  stand  alone  in  this  statement,  for  it  is  the  common  assertion  of  most 
modern  writers  on  poultry  even  to  this  day;  but  it  is  more  difficult  to 
understand  how  Mr.  Dickson  could  have  fallen  into  so  great  an  error, 
when  he  quotes  Temminck,  Buffon,  and  Bechtien,  who  surely,  when  writing 
on  the  subject  of  fowls  with  five  toes,  were  fully  aware  of  numerous  breeds 
that  have  the  extra  toe  not  belonging  to  the  widespread  variety  now 
commonly  and  erroneously  called  the  "Dorking."  For  there  are  other 
breeds,  quite  different  in  their  general  aspects,  that  also  possess  the  fifth 
toe.  Therefore  I  dismiss  the  subject  so  far  as  it  is  a  criterion  of  the  breed 
to  be  found  in  the  so-called  Dorking  only,  and  have  little  or  no  hesitation 
in  believing  that  it  was  the  ordinary  large  fowl  of  the  southern  parts  of 
England,  so  numerous  in  the  counties  of  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey,  which 
are  all  eminently  celebrated  for  the  excellent  quality  of  their  poultry. 
It  has  also  been  averred  that  a  property  of  the  so-called  Dorking  is  the 
large  size  and  generally  bulky  appearance  of  those  denominated  "colored 
Dorking,"  and  which  have  given  place  of  late  years  at  poultry  shows  to  one 


454  The    Poultry   Book 

variety — the  dark  gray,  the  hens  especially  being  almost  black,  with 
white  quills,  stems,  or  mid-ribs  to  their  feathers,  and  also  the  very  beautiful 
cross-bred  silver-grays.  The  double  or  rose -formed  crest  has  been  sus- 
pended in  favor  of  the  high,  deeply  serrated  single  comb.  A  writer 
in  Rees's  "  Cyclopaedia  "  (Vol.  XXVIII.)  thus  gives  his  opinion  of  a  Barking 
breed,  as  the  town  was  sometimes  called: 

"Dorking  fowls,  as  they  are  called,  are  all  raised  in  the  Weald  of 
Sussex,  but  the  finest  market  for  them  is  Horsham.  The  five-clawed 
breed  have  been  considered  the  best  sort ;  this  is,  however,  a  great  mistake, 
and  it  took  its  origin  in  some  fowls  of  this  peculiarity  that  happened  to 
be  very  large  and  fine,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  what  has  since  been 
called  the  Dorking  or  five-clawed  fowls,  and  considered  in  other  parts  of 
England  as  the  prime  stock,  but  such  a  thing  is  hardly  known  in  Sussex; 
it  is  a  bastard  *  breed  which  is  used  at  the  table  of  Lord  Egremont,  and 
have  very  frequently,  it  is  said,  astonished  the  company  by  their  size." 

Here  again  error  creeps  in,  the  five-toed  being  by  no  means  confined 
to  Dorking,  and  those  of  Lord  Egremont  were  simply  the  true  breed. 
After  the  most  searching  inquiry,  I  am  led  to  fully  beheve  that  the  four- 
toed  varieties  of  barn-door  fowls  were  the  bastard  breed,  and  were  most 
probably  a  cross  with  the  English  white-shanked  Game-fowl,  which  was 
resorted  to  sometimes  to  give  increased  vigor.  Again,  the  Dorking 
fowls  proper,  if  any,  were  a  smaller  breed,  and,  as  Mr.  W.  B.  Dickson 
observes,  were  almost  always  white,  their  legs  short  and  remarkably 
smooth.  In  the  engraving  of  the  Dorking  fowls,  from  a  drawing  by 
Edwards  in  Rees's  "Cyclopedia,"  the  birds  are  white  with  rose  combs 
and  shght  "lark"  crests,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  these  albinos 
were  the  breed  of  fowls  for  which  the  town  of  Dorking  was,  if  ever,  held 
m  such  repute;  at  the  same  time,  and  which  must  not  be  overlooked,  it 
IS  also  a  fact  that  it  was  one  of  those  large  "fattening"  centers  for  which 
the  south  of  England  was  and  is  to  this  day  so  celebrated,  and  to  which 
I  shall  hereafter  allude;  also  that  most  of  the  poultry  so  fattened  were 
bought  principally  at  the  Horsham  poultry  market,  which  is  even  now 
one  of  considerable  importance.  And  formerly,  as  I  have  shown,  instead 
of  Dorking  being  the  most  celebrated  breed  of  fowls,  it  appears  the  Kentish 
were  considered  superior.  AVilliam  Lambarde,  in  his  "Perambulations 
of  Kent"  m  1576,  after  eulogizing  the  cattle  as  being  the  largest  of  their 

*  How  bastard  ?     If  so,  how  bred  ? 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      455 


h  A  i 


COCKEREL   AND    PULLET,    PRIZE-BRED    OLD    KENT 
Showing  fine  form  and  breast 

kind,  states:  "The  like  whereof  also  Polydore  *  in  his  history  confesseth 
of  the  Kentish  poultry."  Izaak  Walton,  also,  in  his  book  on  "Fishing," 
mentions  that  the  Kentish  poultry  were  even  then  of  unusual  size.  The 
old  "Tunbridge  Wells  Guide  Books"  state  that  the  fowls  sold  there  were 
large  and  good.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  for  if  Dorking  is  said  to 
have  obtained  its  breed  from  the  Roman  period,  is  it  not  as  much  or 
more  likely  that  Kent,  possessing  as  it  does  a  Roman  road  throughout, 
should  also  have  had  some  of  the  ancient  breed  mentioned  by  Columella  ? 
And  indeed  the  five-toed  varieties,  as  stated,  are  not  by  any  means  confined 
to  England, 
*  Virgil. 


456 


The    Poultry    Book 


As  conceded,  Dorking  may  have  had  the  credit  of  a  certain  breed  of 
white  fowls  with  rose  combs,  but  to  say  that  all  the  white  or  colored 
varieties  of  fowls  are  Dorkings,  or  that  the  latter  have  emanated  from 
them,  is  simply  absurd;  for  all  the  Dorking  fowls  were  not  even  five-toed, 
though  many  undoubtedly  were ;  but  so  also  were  the  Sussex,  Surrey, 
and  Kent.  Over  fifty  years  ago  it  was  well  known,  and  often  stated, 
that  breeds  of  fowls  with  five  toes  were  kept  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
both  in  Kent  and  Sussex,  from  generation  to  generation.  Dorking,  as 
far  as  can  be  ascertained,  was  a  place  chiefly  for  table  fowls,  obtained 
from  several  breeders  living  many  miles  away,  and  carried  there  by 
"higglers"  to  fatten  for  market,  but  not  bred  there. 

Mr.  Arthur  Young,  writing  on  the  subject  of  poultry  in  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  among  others  mentions  a  Mr.  Boys  *  as  possessing  a 
fine  breed  of  fowls;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  Reverend  J.  Boys,  of 
Biddenham,  Kent,  was  among  the  first  to  take  prizes  under  the  name  of 
"Dorkings."  When  the  Zoological  Society  instituted  poultry  shows 
prizes  were  offered  for  Kent,  Surrey,  and  Sussex  fowls;  many  with  five 
toes  were  exhibited,  and  foolishly  disallowed  by  the  judges  calling  them 


From  a  rirawing-  by  Har 


VOUNG   DORKING    COCKEREL 


Dorkings.     Where  did  Mr.  Lewry  get  the  Dorking  fowls  he  won  with  at 
the  poultry  shows  but  from  the  farmers  of  Kent  and  Sussex  ?     Not  from 
Dorking.     One  of  the  greatest  evils  that  befell  the  splendid,  large,  well- 
*  See  notes  on  Mr.  Boys  in  previous  chapters. 


r 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking   Fowls      459 

formed,  active,  and  profitable  table  fowls  of  the  southern  coiinties  was  the 
introduction  of  the  Shanghai  or  Cochin.  The  "higglers"  procured  cocks 
of  this  breed,  and  prevailed  on  many  of  the  Kent  and  Sussex  farmers  to 
cross  them  with  the  grand  old  fowls  that  were  before  the  perfection  of 
the  barn-door  breeds.  One  of  the  greatest  sinners  in  this  respect  was 
this  Mr.  Lewry ;  and  many  were  the  Dark  Cochins  that  he  has  been  known 
to  sell  or  exchange  with  the  Sussex  and  Kentish  men  for  some  of  their 
very  best  fowls,  and  with  which  he  stocked  a  number  of  now  high-class 


OLD    KENT    DARK-RED    HEN    AND    TWO    OTHERS 


poultry  yards ;  but  with  some  of  these  he  also  gained  a  "  Dorking  "  notoriety 
and  prizes  as  a  successful  breeder,  while  the  old  stocks  from  which  he 
drew  his  supplies  were  (for  the  time,  at  least)  utterly  ruined  by  the  Cochin 
cross;  for  though  it  possibly  somewhat  (which  I  deny)  improved  the  size, 
it  was  at  the  cost  of  flesh  quality  and  increase  of  bone  and  offal. 

Having  at  various  times  visited  several  "out-of-the-way"  places  in 
Kent  and  Sussex  and  noted  "here  and  there"  some  of  the  old  short- 
legged  breeds  that  once  were  so  common  in  almost  every  farmyard  (bright, 
lively,  active,  square-made,  large-breasted  birds,  light  of  bone,  good 
foragers  and  hardy),  to-day  I  scarcely  know  where  to  look  for  these; 


460  The   Poultry   Book 

nor  where  are  the  old  speckles  or  spangles  (truly  beautiful  fowls),  or  the 
reds  or  cinnamons,  the  light  grays  with  speckled  breasts,  or  the  browns, 
many  with  bright  rose  combs;  or  the  old  single-combed  whites,  with  thin 
white  shanks,  the  cocks  with  large  flowing  tails.  (The  portrait  of  a 
cockerel  of  this  breed,  from  one  of  mine,  appeared  in  the  "Poultry 
Book"  of  1852-53.) 

Where  are  all  these?  Where  are  to  be  got  the  snow-white,  fine- 
flavored  eggs,  whiter  than  the  cloth  they  were  wrapped  in  ?  Gone ! 
"Nobody  buys  any  but  brown  eggs  now,"  said  a  hen  wife  to  me  a  few 
weeks  ago,  when  I  remonstrated  with  her  on  the  breed  of  fowls  she  kept. 
The  mongrel  things  were  fairly  good  layers  of  light-brown  eggs,  and  so 
her  old  south  breed  had  been  parted  with ;  for  living  near  a  coimtry  town, 
she  could  make  more  money  of  her  brown  or  tinted  eggs;  and  as  to  her 
fowls,  as  table  fowls,  well!  "it  made  but  little  difference  that  way,"  for 
but  few  of  her  town  customers  realized  whether  they  were  good,  bad 
or  indifferent  when  trussed  for  cooking,  with  broken  ribs  and  crushed 
breast-bone. 

And  all  these  colors,  forms,  and  varieties  are  now  scarce  or  gone — 
at  least,  I  know  of  but  few;  true  it  is  there  is  the  "Show  Dorking,"  as  it 
is  called,  a  large,  heavy,  cumbersome  bird,  bigger  in  bone,  meaty,  deep- 
breasted,  and  as  some  aver  hardier;  it  is  a  grand  bird,  doubtless,  and 
worthy  of  great  praise;  but  "is  it  a  better  bird  in  all  respects  than  the 
old  stock  bird  of  the  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  farmyards?"  Does  it 
forage  so  well  ?  That  is  a  point  worth  noting.  Is  it  not  more  coarse  in 
flesh  and  feather?  Does  it  not  "go  wrong"  in  its  feet  frequently ?  while 
such  a  thing  was  scarcely  or  ever  known  in  "the  old  five-toed"  fowl. 

The  old  breed  could  fly  well,  and  generally  roosted  in  the  trees,  stood 
up  and  crowed  at  the  "proper  times"  as  old  English  fowls  should — "they 
of  the  olden  time."  I  have  had  a  cock  weigh  thirteen  and  a  half  pounds, 
and  a  hen  of  eleven  pounds  when  taken  up  from  the  poultry  run;  and 
these,  as  far  as  I  know,  never  had  a  taint  of  the  Shanghai  or  Cochin  blood. 

Why  was  the  term  ' '  Colored  Dorking ' '  taken  out  of  the  show  schedules 
and  "Dark  Dorking"  substituted?  Why  was  one  color  made  to  take 
precedence?  Why  should  the  speckles,  the  reds,  browns,  and  other 
colors  be  stamped  out  of  existence  by  the  "whims  and  fancies"  of  certain 
judges,  etc.,  and  no  other  five-toed  fowls  of  the  old  English  breeds  be 
considered  worth  keeping  but  the  cross-bred  dark,   colored,   and   gray, 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking   Fowls      461 

the  silver-gray,  and  the  white  ?     Were  poultry  shows  only  instituted  for 
such  as  these? 

At  one  time  the  four-toed  Surrey  fowl  was  greatly  in  demand ;  where 
is  it  now?  We  are  told,  by  those  who  are  said  to  know,  that  the  fifth 
toe  is  the  cause  of  the  lameness  of  the  so-called  "Dorking";  if  so,  why 
then  was  the  old  English  Game-fowl  lame  from  gout,  as  the  old  books  on 
' '  Cocking ' '  testify  ?  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  real  and  simple 
cause  of  the  gouty  or  "bumble-foot"  in  the  exhibition  Dorking  comes 
principally,  if  not  altogether,  from  feeding,  food- "forcing,"  and  high- 
perching.  Long  experience  and  close  observation  make  it  difficult  to 
believe  that  the  fifth  toe  has  but  little,  if  anything  whatever,  to  do  with 


A'  ) 


:^\      /('//' 


f:ii .  A^'^^ 


Dm-wn  by  Harrisot 
A   PAIR   OF    WHITE    DORKINGS 


Rees's  "  C'^  clopcedia ' 


462 


The    Poultry   Book 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison 
PRIZE    DORKING    HENS 
Bred  by  Fisher  Hobbs  and  sold  to  H.R.H.  Prince  Albert 


the  foot  disease,  which   was  unknown  among  barn-door  fowls,   though 
having  the  fifth  toe,  but  kept  in  a  natural  way ;  yet  the  hind  toe  was  then, 

as  now,  largely  and  very  fully 
developed,  as  also  spurs  on  the 
hens  of  considerable  size  and 
sharpness. 

Nor  are  these  modern  crosses 
better  for  early  chickens;  for  in 
1 81 5  Mrs.  Adams,  of  Shipton-on- 
Stour,  always  had  chickens  ready 
for  New  Year's  Day.  This  is 
remarkable,  but  by  no  means 
uncommon  with  the  old  Kent  and 
Sussex  hen  wives,  the  birds  being 
reared  in  the  dry  sheds  about  the 
farmyards.  As  late  as  May,  in 
1827,  the  price  of  poultry  ruled 
high  in  London  markets,  young 
fowls  being  sold  at  i^s.  the  couple 
and  ducks  equally  dear.  To  remedy  this,  shows  for  dead  poultry 
were  instituted  for  fattening,  those  of  Earl  Spencer  being  the  most 
successful;  and  it  is  a  common  fact,  which  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of,  that  the  points  of  excellence  noted  in  the  schedule  for 
prizes  are  almost  identical  with  those  taken  from  Columella  and 
other  writers  of  1580,  1581,  1600,  1616,  1670,  and  so  until  1790, 
1810,  1820,  and  1827,  as:  "The  fowls  should  be  plump,  deep,  long, 
and  capacious  in  body,  with  short  white  legs  of  small-sized  bone, 
of  very  white,  juicy,  fine-grained  flesh,  the  fat  and  the  skin  equally 
white  and  of  delicate  flavor." 

"All  the  birds  to  have  been  bred  in  Northamptonshire  and  to  be 
shown  alive."     It  concluded  with  this  instruction: 

"Small-boned,  well-proportioned  poultry  greatly  excel  the  large- 
boned,  long-legged  kind  in  color  and  firmness  of  flesh  and  delicacy  of 
flavor;  for  it  is  held  good  that  of  all  animals  of  the  domestic  kind,  those 
which  have  the  smallest,  cleanest,  and  finest  bones  are  in  general  the 
best  proportioned  and  are  covered  with  the  best  and  purest  meat ;  besides 
being,  in  the  opinion  of  good  judges,  the  most  inclined  to  feed,  and  fatted 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls      463 

with  the  smallest  proportionable  quantity  of  food  to  the  greatest  com- 
parative weight  and  size." 

After  a  while  these  shows  were  followed  by  other  utility  shows  at 
the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  when  again  the  excellence 
and  variety  of  our  "utility"  fowls  were  duly  recognized,  and  all  the 
before-named  requirements  were  taken  into  consideration. 

At  the  first  live  poultry  show  held  at  the  Society's  Gardens,  Jime  6, 
1845,  there  were  classes  for  Speckled  Dorkings  (then  plentiful),  Surrey, 
Kent,  and  Sussex  fowls,  all  for  table  purposes — the  Dorkings  and  Kents 
being  awarded  first  prizes,  Messrs.  Baker,  of  Leadenhall  Market  and 
Chelsea,  winning  for  Hamburgs,  Black  Spanish,  and  Madeiras ;  they  were 
also  commended  for  Chinese  and  Madeiras.  I  was  present;  and  these 
latter  appeared  to  be  nothing  else  than  a  variety  of  what  is  called  the 
Minorca  and  the  Black  Spanish.  The  Bakers  also  won  with  their  feather- 
legged  Bantams ;  Mr.  Tyler, 

of    the    Surrey    Zoological     '  "  n 

Gardens,  winning  a  first 
prize  with  "Polish";  Mr. 
Nolan  was  second  with 
Malays;  these  were  very 
different  from  Messrs. 
Bakers'  Chinese.  Several 
varieties  of  Bantams  were 
exhibited,  including  gold 
and  silver  spangled  as  then 
called,  not  laced  and  true 
black  Bantams,  nor  pygmy 
black  Hamburgs  now 
known  as  such.  The  show 
was  held  on  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  long  walk  at  the 
back  of  the  bear  pit,  near 
the  boundary  of  the 
gardens ;  there  was  no  tent 
or  covering.  The  exhibi- 
tion was  well  attended,  and  considered  to  be  successful.  The  judges 
were    Mr.    John    Baily,   who    afterward    took    a     prominent    place    at 


'%a» 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Wt 
PRIZE    DORKING   COCKEREL 
Bred  by  Fisher  Hobbs  and  sold  to  H.R.H.  Prince  Albert 


B. 
C. 
H. 

E. 
E. 

E. 


464  The   Poultry    Book 

the  many  and  various  shows,  the  offspring  of  this  the  first  attempt 
at  a  utiHty  and  fancy  gathering,  and  who  for  so  many  years  strongly 
advocated  the  merits  of  the  so-called  "Dorking"  as  the  very  best 
of  table  fowls ;  Mr.  George  Fisher,  well  known  as  an  excellent  judge  of 
pigs;  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least,  the  gentle  and  kind-hearted  Mr. 
William  Yarrell,  V.  P.  Z.  S.,  the  author  of  "British  Birds  and  British 
Fishes,  and  Monograph  of  the  Salmon."  Here  are  the  names  of  some 
of  the  prize-winners: 

Prize  I .  Speckled  Dorking Class  A. 

"      2.  Surrey  (Bartlett) 

"      I .  Kent  (Miss  Cooper) 

"      I.  Hamburg  (Bakers) 

I.  Black  Spanish  (Bakers) 

"      I.  Polish  (Tyler) 

"      2.  Malay  (Nolan) 

"      I.  Chinese  (Bakers). 

(commended)  (Bakers). 

I.  Spangled  Muffled  Fowls,  Bantams,  etc. 

Also  varieties  of  coops  were  exhibited. 

This  was  considered  to  be  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  as  the  show 
was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the  purity  of  breeds,  and  the 
more  careful  production  of  poultry  of  the  greatest  utility  and  perfection. 
At  the  same  time,  it  was  admitted  that  our  southern  white-legged  farm- 
yard stocks  were,  in  many  instances,  exceptionally  good,  and  as  table 
fowls  unsurpassable ;  nor  was  it  possible  for  these  to  be  more  carefully 
selected,  mated,  bred  and  reared;  to  which  the  vast  number  of  market 
fowls,  both  in  form,  color  of  flesh,  skin,  fat,  and  shanks  fully  testified. 
Moreover,  if  a  "  Game  cock ' '  was  taken  ' '  to  walk, ' '  it  was  contended  that 
he  must  correspond  somewhat  in  color  with  the  home  birds,  and  have 
white  shanks,  etc.  The  farmsteads,  too,  would  not  keep  any  mixed 
variety  that  was  not  considered  to  be  of  the  best  for  sale  to  the  higgler, 
and  good  early  layers,  as  they  were  looked  upon  not  only  as  farm-house 
luxuries  but  also  as  channels  through  which  considerable  profit  was  derived. 
When  the  first  show  was  held  at  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  the  fowls 
from  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  the  so-called  Dorking  gave  ample  proof 
that  they  were  to  be  had  in  plenty  and  of  a  quality  which  left  little  to  be 
desired.  It  has  often  been  stated  that  our  barn-door  fowls  were  small; 
this  might  be  the  case  in  some  instances,  but  those  of  Kent  and  Sussex 
were  not  usually  so,  the  cocks  often  weighing  more  than  ten  pounds,  and 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking   Fowls      465 

the  hens  eight,  and  in  some  instances  even  more.     Latham  writes  of  a 
Dorking  in  the  last  century  that  weighed  more  than  fourteen  pounds. 

In  1847  the  Zoological  Society  held  another  show  in  their  gardens, 
which  was  again  successful,  and,  indeed,  led  the  way  toward  and  induced 


By  permission  oj  the  proprietors  of  the  "Field' 
■HE    HONORABLE    MR.    ASTLEY's    GRAY    DORKINGS 


the  Birmingham  Cattle  Show  Club  to  add  poultry  to  their  Christmas 
exhibition,  which  they  did  in  1849. 

At  the  Zoological  Society's  show  the  most  approved  were  Sussex 
(which  had  in  some  cases  five  toes),  Surrey,  and  Kent,  and  the  so-called 
Dorking,  nearly  all  of  which  were  of  excellent  quality  and  of  rich  coloring, 
but  mostly  shown  young,  the  exhibitors  being  under  the  impression  they 
were  better  as  table  fowls.     They  were  immature  birds,  not  having  full- 


466 


The  Poultry  Book 


grown  tails,  etc.,  and  so  not  presenting  the  grand  appearance  that  the 
southern  barn-door  cock  usually  attained  in  his  second  year,  nor  having 
the  massive  frames  so  characteristic  of  these  much-prized  birds;  yet 
Messrs.  Baker,  of  Chelsea,  had  an  extra  prize,  while  Mr.  Lewry,*  of  Hand- 
cross,  Cuckfield,  Sussex,  was  the  winner  of  two  prizes,  with  very  fine 
large-framed,  well-formed,  short-legged  fowls,  very  clean  and  white  in  the 
shanks.  In  point  of  fact,  all  the  table  poultry  was  good  in  quality  excepting 
the  White-faced  Black  Spanish.  The  lofty-standing  Malays  of  Messrs. 
Baker  received  much  attention,  they  being  very  rich  in  color. 

The  chief  object  of  the  show  was  the  encouragement  of  the  breeding 
of  the  most  approved  sorts  of  table  fowls;  therefore,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  the  Dorking,  Surrey,  Sussex,  and  Kent  barn-door  formed  the 


OLD    ENGLISH    BLACK-BREASTED    RED    DORKINGS 
Once  owned  by  Mr.  Weir 

principal  and  most  interesting  part  both  of  this  and  the  former  exhibi- 
tion; and  the  improvements  in  showing,  in  size,  quality,  and  pureness 

*  Mr.  Lewry  was  of  a  family  of  "higglers"  and  poultry  "falters,"  and  frequently 
bought  fowls  and  chickens  of  my  friends  and  relatives  before-mentioned,  some  of  his  best 
and  purest-bred  prize  birds  coming  from  their  farmyards  and  homesteads. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      467 

of  breed  elicited  from  the  judges  a  very  decided  opinion  of  high  approba- 
tion. It  was  also  a  matter  for  much  congratulation  to  find  that  our  farm- 
yard produce  was  in  so  satisfactory  a  state,  so  much  so  that  the  society 
thought  that  they  had  done  enough  to  demonstrate  the  fact,  and  that 
in  future  poultry  would  be  found  a  worthy  and  profitable  adjunct  to 
farming,  especially  in  what  is  termed  the  home  counties,  as  indeed  at 
this  time  some  of  the  best  fowls  ever  sent  to  market  came  from  the  English 
homesteads,  grown  by  farmers'  wives  and  daughters,  not  by  mere  fanciers, 
but  as  good  and  serviceable  stock,  and  by  no  means  to  be  neglected  as 
sources  of  income.  Then  came  the  Shanghai  fowls  and  the  craze  for  size, 
novelty,  and  colored  eggs;  and  ill  it  fared  with  our  old  breeds.  The 
Shanghais  were  taken  to  the  English  homestead  as  desirable  crosses  to 
get  size  and,  as  some  said,  hardiness,  whereas  no  one  ever  complained 
of  any  tenderness  in  the  old  birds  but  those  ignorant  of  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  chickens  and  how  to  rear  them.  Seldom  was  it  that  broods  were 
seen  of  less  than  eight  or  nine,  while  they  often  numbered  ten,  twelve, 
sixteen,  and  I  have  known  twenty  all  hatched  by  one  hen.  The  Cochin 
or  Shanghai  craze  was  the  first  blow  that  our  ancient  and  almost  perfect 
farm  poultry  received;  though  every  effort  was  made  by  such  men  as 
Mr,  Baily,  Captain  Hornby,  and  others  to  keep  the  breeds  from  con- 
tamination, the  wave  came  on  nevertheless,  and  in  too  many  cases  the 
damage  became  irreparable,  while  fortunately  in  others  some  few  of  the 
Kent  and  Sussex  breeders  would  have  none  of  them. 

1850  AND    i860 

"  O ,  what  men   dare   do  !     What  men  may  do  ! 
What  men   daily  do,  not  knowing  what  they  do." 

— Much  Ado  About  Nothing. 

At  this  time  the  Shanghai  "took  the  lead  and  kept  it,"  and  its  merits, 

greatly  exaggerated  from  the  first,  were  still  further  extolled,  until  it  was 

averred  that  there  was  no  property  that  a  good  fowl  should  have  but 

this  possessed  it ;  it  was  delicious  roasted  or  boiled,  and  the  hens  laid  two 

or  three  eggs  a  day.     All  this  tended  for  a  while  toward  the  depreciation 

of  the  fine  old  English  fowls  of  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  Dorking.     Nor 

was  this  the  worst,  for  many  farmers,  poulterers,  and  others,  finding  the 

Shanghai  so  much  in  request,  and  stimulated  to  do  so  by  writers  on  and 

about  poultry,  imhesitatingly  crossed  the  old  breeds  with  the  new  and 

coarser  birds ;  and  to  such  an  extent  was  this  done  that  many,  if  not  most, 


468  The   Poultry    Book 

of  the  larger  five-toed  fowls  were  more  often  than  not  half  Shanghai ;  not 
a  few  were  seen  in  the  show-pens  with  unmistakable  scars  on  their  shanks 
and  toes  where  feathers  had  been  removed  and  in  some  cases  filled  in  with 
wax,  while  the  sides  of  the  shanks,  though  clear  of  feathers,  were  too  often 
of  a  deep  pink  or  red  color,  as  though  they  were  in  some  way  suppressed. 
Such  crosses  were  also  visible  in  the  combs,  being  more  of  the  Shanghai  or 
Cochin  shape.  Yet  through  it  all  the  grand  old  English  birds  held  their 
own,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  White-faced  Black  Spanish  and  the 
Cinnamon  or  Btiff  Cochin,  had  prizes  of  the  same  value  offered,  and  for 
table  purposes  were  pronounced  by  the  best  judges  not  only  able  to  main- 
tain their  high  position,  but  when  pure  bred  were  unrivaled — the  magnifi- 
cent birds  of  Captain  Hornby,  Towneley  Parker,  Reverend  J.  Boys,  L. 
Lewry,  Sir  John  Cathcart's  speckles,  Christopher  Rawson  and  Thomas  Potts, 
Mrs.  Arkwright  and,  later,  Lady  Holmsdale,  with  those  of  Mr.  Fisher 
Hobbs,  who  latterly  spoiled  his  strain  by  the  Cochin  or  Shanghai  cross; 
though  this  was  denied,  yet  such  was  the  fact,  Mr.  Fisher  Hobbs  *  himself 
telling  me  that  he  had  used  a  Dorking  cock  to  a  Partridge -colored  Shang- 
hai hen,  and  from  these  some  of  his  prize-winners  were  bred.  At  this  time 
(1853)  the  Dorking,  etc.,  were  again  coming  slowly  to  the  front  and 
winning  favor  entirely  on  their  own  individual  and  collective  merits, 
though  the  rose-combed  birds,  the  brilliant  reds  (of  which  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
once  wrote  that  a  cock  of  this  breed  was  "indeed  a  beautiful  sight"),  the 
tawnies,  and  the  ancient  breed  of  speckles  were  pushed  out  by  the  cross- 
bred silver  duckw4ng  grays  and  whites,  until  the  old  and  lovely  color  was 
never  seen  in  the  show-pen,  but  only  found  in  some  of  the  homesteads  of 
the  better  class  of  Kent  and  Sussex  farmers. 

Thus  it  was  that  the  real  and  wonderful  merits  of  the  southern  birds 
became  more  and  more  recognized,  and  for  a  while  were  in  request,  when 
Mr.  John  Douglas  f  bought  a  white-shanked,  very  dark-colored,  nearly 
black  Malay  cock  at  the  London  Docks,  and  by  crossing  this  with  some 
Dark  Dorking  hens  again  brought  more  foreign  blood  into  the  old  English 
breed ;  his  boast  was  that  he  got  much  darker  and  richer  colors  and  heavier 
birds.     Though  this  has  often  been  asserted,  still  the  fact  remains,  before 

*  Mr.  Fisher  Hobbs  sold  his  Dorking  eggs  at  5s.  each,  packing  included. 

t  Mr.  W.  B.  Tegetmeier  states  that  Mr.  Douglas  obtained  the  Malay  from  the  Zoulogical 
Society's  Gardens,  but  Mr.  J.  Douglas  told  me  himself  that  it  was  not  so,  but  that  the 
cock  was  bought  at  the  docks;  and  as  he  was  the  buyer,  owner,  and  raiser  of  the  cross-breed, 
I  prefer  to  take  his  statement  rather  than  that  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      469 


mentioned,  that  there  is  a  record  of  a  Dorking  weighing  fourteen  pounds 
as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  cocks  weighing 
more  than  twelve  pounds  and  hens  more  than  ten  pounds,  and  these  of  the 
pure  old  farmyard  breed  without  a  cross,  were  in  evidence.  This  crossing  and 
recrossing  had  the  baneful  effect  of  rendering  the  breed  unreliable.  Then 
it  was  that  the  mongrelization  became  apparent  in  dark  and  sooty  shanks 
and  feet,  and  that  being  more  often  in  the  larger  birds  than  the  old  and 
true,    the    judges 

gave    the   prizes  to      [  '      ' 

avowed  cross- 
breeds, although 
the  shows  were  in- 
stituted for  the 
perpetuation  of 
"pureness  of  breed 
and  fineness  o  f 
quality,  mere  size 
not  to  be  con- 
sidered." Here  is 
Mr.  John  Baily  writ- 
ing in  the  Poultry 
Chronicle,  1854:  "It 
may  seem  at  first 
sight  that  two 
combs  dissimilar  as 
possible  should  be 
equally  pure,  but 
it  is  not  the  less 
true.     I    do    not 

object  to  a  cup  comb,  and  the  fact  proves  it,  while  the  contrary  is 
only  supported  by  bare  assertion.  Some  have  said  that  the  rose 
combs  arise  from  a  Malay  cross;  but  if  there  be  any  truth 
in  this,  can  its  supporters  explain  how  every  indication  of  the  cross 
has  been  got  rid  of?"  Further  he  says:  "There  is  no  color  for 
Dorkings,  and  only  two  are  excepted:  they  are  the  black  and  white; 
the  latter  are  a  distinct  breed."  (Just  so,  it  is  said  that  the  latter  are 
the  only  true,  if  any.)     "Yet,"    adds   Mr.   Baily,   "while  every  color  is 


,-   jP^^ 


From  a  drawing  by  Har 
OLD    KENT    FIVE-TOED    HEN 


470  The    Poultry   Book 

admirable,  care  should  be  taken  to  match  the  birds  composing  a  pen  with 
due  regard  to  uniformity." 

Here  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Baily,  who  was  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
best  judges  of  table  fowl  at  that  time  (1854).  He  knew  well  that  certain 
breeders  and  farmers  had  colors  and  strains  which  they  preferred  and 
which  they  kept  true;  his  knowledge  was  of  fact,  and  his,  like  my  own, 
was  from  actual  observation,  not  merely  stating  from  hearsay,  like  far  too 
many  writing  on  the  subject  both  then  and  now,  most  of  whom  never  saw 
the  old  stocks  of  red  and  brown  or  other  colored  birds  that  were  numerous 
even  then  in  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey — men  who  were  "writers"  only, 
and  not,  as  Mr.  Baily,  of  long,  sound,  practical  experience  as  poultrymen 
and  poulterers ;  had  his  advice  and  dictum  been  attended  to,  as  it  should 
have  been,  we  might  still  have  had  in  table  fowls  the  fine  rich  colors  of 
the  more  olden  times,  besides  retaining  the  full-fleshed  forms  and  square- 
made,  short -thighed  legs  and  medium-shanked  birds,  with  all  their  attend- 
ant good  qualities.  Mr.  Baily  goes  on  to  say:  "One  of  the  most  popular 
colors  for  hens  in  the  present  day  is  that  known  as  Lord  Hill's.  These 
are  '  silver -grays ' ;  in  point  of  fact,  they  are  duckwing  silver-grays,  and 
were  a  cross  between  the  old  duckwing  silver-gray,  white-shanked,  pearl- 
eyed  old  English  Game-cock  and  the  gray  Surrey,  Kent,  and  Sussex.  The 
silver-gray  'proper'  has  no  steel-black  bar  on  the  wing.  The  next  class 
is  the  grays,  and,"  continues  Mr.  Baily,  "with  all  these  the  most  desirable 
match  for  a  cock  is  one  with  light  hackle  and  saddle,  dark  breast  and  tail; 
I  advisably  say  dark  in  preference  to  black  because  I  think  servile  adher- 
ence to  any  given  color  too  often  necessitates  the  sacrifice  of  more  valu- 
able qualities."  (This  is  quite  right,  and  in  a  table  fowl  especially  so.) 
'  *  I  look  on  a  fine  Dorking  with  no  less  admiration  if  his  breast  is  speckled 
and  his  tail  composed  of  a  mixture  of  black  and  white  feathers,  and  such 
a  bird  is  a  fit  and  a  proper  match  for  any  gray  hens."  This  is  precisely  my 
own  opinion;  the  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey  or  colored  Dorkings  should  be 
shown  now  and  then  of  any  colors  that  suited  the  fancy  of  the  rearer, 
provided  that  the  whole  "pen"  match  in  comb,  color,  form,  shank,  and 
feet.  This  Mr.  Baily  said  in  1854,  and  so  acted  one  of  the  best  judges  of 
table  poultry  ever  known.  He  then  notes  the  chocolate  and  the  black 
white-speckled  of  Sir  John  Cathcart*:  "Another  speckle — a  grayish- 
brown  spotted  with  white,  and  brown  hens  with   black-breasted  red  cock 

*  White-spangled  blacks,  others  white-spangled  of  colors. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      471 

cuckoos,  etc."  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  the  unbiassed  opinion 
of  so  eminent  a  judge  both  of  Hve  and  dead  poultry,  and  goes  to  show  that 
the  old  colors  could  be  shown  with  success  as  late  as  the  fifties,  and  even 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison  U\ 


PRESENT-DAY    PRIZE    DORKING 

The  winner  of  a  silver  cup 


later,  before  "fancy"  and  other  committees  unwisely  interfered  by  restric- 
tions made  to  meet  the  darker  hues  and  feathering  brought  to  notice  by 
the  larger  Asiatic  crosses.  Here  is  Mr.  Baily's  description  (1854)  of  the 
other  form  of  one  of  the  finest  breeds  of  table  fowls  ever  produced,  and 
which  is  identical  with  that  bred  for  centuries  in  England : 

"In  shape,  the  body,  divested  of  head,  tail,  and  legs,  should  give  a 
square  *  The  head  should  be  fine  and  intelligent,  the  face  plump  and 
round,  the  legs  short,  the  tail  ample  and  carried  cheerfully;  neck  short, 
increasing  in  bulk  till  it  is  lost  in  the  breast ;  it  is  not  placed  on  the  shoulders 
as  m  some  breeds,  but  loses  itself  in  the  body,  helping  to  form  the 
prominent  and  full  breast  for  which  these  fowls  are  famous." 

All  this  was  true — perfectly  true  and  accurate,  and  with  such  a  breed 
or  breeds  it  might  be  deemed  impossible  to  improve  it  by  adding  to  or 
crossing  in  with  the  coarser-fleshed  Cochin  or  Shanghai.     Loud  and  long 

*  Not  a  long,  but  plump,  meaty  breast,  far  the  best  form  of  all  both  for  appearance 
and  quality. 


472  The  Poultry  Book 

were  the  protests  made  by  the  best  utihty-fowl  breeders,  but  these  were 
written  down  by  the  ghb  pen  of  the  ignorant  but  ready  writer,  and  so  the 
credulous  were  led  to  spoil,  more  or  less,  with  a  foreign  blend  so  grand,  so 
good,  and  so  ancient  a  breed.  Nor  was  this  all,  for  another  candidate 
appeared  for  mongrelizing  honors  in  the  so-called  Brahma  Pootra,  itself 
a  cross-breed.  This,  like  a  new  doll  with  a  child,  for  a  while  possessed  all 
the  charms  of  novelty;  and  the  fine  old  southern  breed  were  not  crossed 
to  improve  "  the  Brahma,"  but  by  a  curious  obliquity  of  mental  and 
intellectual  vision  it  was  said  to  benefit  the  already  nearly  perfect  old 
English  favorites,  the  Dorkings,  etc.,  etc. 

Thus  another  mongrel  race  of  fowls  came  into  existence,  a  semi- 
Asiatic  breed  with  red  ear-lobes  instead  of  white  tinted  red  on  the  outside 
rim  or  edge,  shank  and  feet  sometimes  horn-colored  or  sooty  white,  often 
almost  red,  sometimes  light  yellow,  with  feathers,  thicker  bones,  shorter 
wings  and  tails,  less  alert  and  different  habits;  even  the  very  crow  of  the 
cocks  was  ' '  strange  and  new. "  So  a  fresh  standard  of  points  of  excellence 
was  thought  needful,  and  the  red  ear-lobes  were  substituted  for  the  white, 
and  sooty  shanks  and  feet  passed  as  correct  or  allowable  by  the  judges  ( ?) 
of  the  newer  mongrel,  and  the  depreciation  of  the  old  and  true  was,  by  the 
more  modern  poultry-breeder,  unblushingly  called  "progress." 

And  further,  by  these  being  interbred  with  coarser  and,  though  larger, 
far  inferior  fowls,  the  quality  was  deteriorated  for  the  table,  and  the  colors 
were  altered.  From  the  steel-gray  Brahma  came  the  bluer-gray  Dorking 
and  the  Partridge  Cochin,  the  dull-brown  dark- grays ;  while  from  the  nearly 
black  Malay  or  Kulm  of  Mr.  John  Douglas  came  those  since-named  Dark 
Dorkings,  the  silver-grays  being  mated  with  the  Light  Brahmas ;  these  last 
a  different  breed  from  the  Dark,  having  but  little  alteration  in  the  color. 
The  old  variety,  known  as  the  "cuckoo,"  for  some  time  had  a  class  and 
notice;  but  it,  like  the  browns,  the  reds,  speckles  and  spangles  and  the 
rose-combed,  became  neglected,  uncalled  and  uncared  for;  and  so  it  was 
that  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  useful  types  of  our  English  farmyard 
or  barn-door  fowls  gradually  became  "things  of  the  past." 

Mr.  Nolan,  writing  in  1850,  then  said  of  the  colored  Dorking: 
"  What  we  want  and  expect  is  size,  and  the  colored  birds  have  it  in  perfec- 
tion." This  was  before  the  Asiatic  mongrelization  began.  He  derides  the 
Reverend  Saul  Dixon,  who  wrote  that  "fine  Dorking  fowls"  weighed  only 
seven  pounds,  while  the  roadside  Irish  ranged  from  seven  to  nine  each. 


THE    CELEBRATED    GRAY    DORKING    COCKEREL   AND    PULLET 
Once  owned  by  Captain  W.  W.  Hornby,  R.N. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls     475 

Mr.  Nolan  says:  "The  cock  figured  above,  now  in  my  possession  out  of 
condition  and  in  heavy  molt,  weighs  ten  and  a  quarter  pounds;  if  fed 
and  over  molt  it  would  be  at  least  two  pounds  more."  The  editor  of  the 
Farmer  s  Gazette  verifies  the  truth  of  the  above.  Mr.  Nolan  also  quotes 
the  Dorkings  of  Mr.  William  Ogilvy,  then  late  Honorary  Secretary  of  the 
London  Zoological  Society,  a  promoter  of  the  breed,  and  who  kept  them 
for  his  own  use  and  the  benefit  of  his  tenants,  and  that  he  (Mr.  Nolan)  had 
chickens  from  this  stock  that  weighed  eight  pounds  at  the  age  of  six 
months.  "The  hens,"  says  he,  "are  from  seven  to  nine  poimds;  they 
stand  low  on  the  legs ;  the  cock  is  about  twenty-two  inches  high,  the  hen 
twenty  inches,  with  short,  roimd,  plump  body,  wide  on  the  breast  and 
back,  with  abundance  of  white,  juicy  flesh;  nothing  to  surpass  them  as  a 
table  fowl."  Here  again  is  another  tribute  to  the  wonderful  breed  we 
had,  and  another  proof  of  the  mischief  done  by  reckless  crossing.  He 
adds,  "their  plumage,  gray,  speckled,  or  striped,  and  sometimes  red;  and 
further,  there  cannot  be  any  fowl  better  calculated  to  add  to  the  profits  of 
the  farmyard,  from  their  abundance  of  flesh  and  small  offal ;  they  are  hardy, 
naturally  climatized,  and  are,  as  their  progenitors  are  described,  'good 
layers  and  sitters,  but  heavy  on  the  nest.'  "  Need  more  be  quoted  to  show 
what  our  breed  was  before  the  mongrelizing,  by  in-breeding  it  with  such 
coarse  and  bony  all-foreign  fowls  as  the  Cochin,  Shanghai,  Brahma,  and 
Malay?  and  yet  at  this  time  (1850-53)  for  table  fowls  these  were  of  surpass- 
ing excellence.  But,  like  much  assertion,  only  the  truth  lives ;  and  so  the 
old  English  fowls  are  still  to  be  found,  but  with  a  blot  on  their  escutcheons. 

The  Rise  of  the  Dorkings 

Thus  writes  Sylvanus  in  the  Poultry  Chronicle,  Vol.  I.,  page  303: 
"If  1853  saw  the  decline  of  the  Cochins,  it  saw  the  rise  of  the  Dorkings. 
These  latter  have  occupied  for  centuries  the  pinnacle  of  the  poultry  temple, 
but,  unfit  for  towns  and  possessing  few  of  the  startling  points  of  plumage 
or  shape,  they  remained  to  a  certain  extent  unnoticed,  and  their  good 
qualities  were  only  appreciated  when  an  unusually  delicious  fowl  on  the 
table  caused  a  look-up,  inquiring  whether  the  fifth  claw  did  not  at  once 
explain  the  cause  of  excellence.  Till  last  year  these  meritorious  birds  were 
to  be  had  for  a  few  shillings.  Witness  the  beautiful  hens  exhibited  four 
years  since  by  Lord  Hill,  which  were  sold  for  lo^.  6d.  each ;  next,  the  excel- 
lent ones  of  the  Honorable  and  Reverend  S.  W.  Lawley,  which  were  put 


476 


The   Poultry    Book 


at  ;^i ;  and  many  others,  till  the  Birmingham  show  of  1853  and  the  Hitchin 
show  ot  the  same  year.  At  the  latter  place  the  Reverend  Mr.  Boys  sold 
his  prize  hen  for  £^0.  At  the  Midland  Counties  show,  the  Reverend  S, 
Donne  lost  his  prize  birds,  although  protected  by  *  twenty  guineas.'  At  the 
Metropolitan  show,  ]\Ir.  Fisher  Hobbs  sold  his  birds  for  seventy-eight 
guineas;  Mr.  Terry,  of  Aylesbury,  sold  his  for  five  guineas  each.  Captain 
Hornby  protected  his  pen  by  a  reserve  of  ;^5oo;  but  it  is  beyond  a  doubt 
they  would  have  been  claimed  at  ;!^ioo.  This  was  the  rise  of  the  Dorkings, 
but  their  rise  partakes  of  the  quiet,  every-day,  and  useful  character  of 
the  birds  themselves.  AVhile  the  best  make  the  best  prices,  there  are 
plent}^  of  good,  useful,  pure-bred  birds  to  be  had  at  moderate  sums. 

"The  increase  does  not  spread  over  the  whole  race  as  it  did  in  the 
Cochins;  these  will  never  go  out  of  favor  as  a  really  good  fowl  for  the 
table.  It  seems  almost  impossible  that  the  Dorking  of  last  year  can  ever 
be  surpassed;   if  it  can,  then  he  would  be  a  bold  man  who  would  fix 

limits  to  its  capabilities." 

At  this  time,  also,  I  may 
add  that  Captain  Hornby  was 
selling  his  Dorking  eggs  at  £t,, 
and  even  ;^4  a  dozen,  while  £2  2s. 
was  almost  a  common  price. 

Again  I  quote : ' '  The  common 
sense  of  the  public  has  brought 
back  the  Dorking  fowl  to  its 
wonted  preeminence.  At  the 
sale  after  the  ]\Ietropolitan  show, 
and  also  at  the  Birmingham 
exhibition  of  this  year  (1854), 
the  Dorking*  fowl  met  with 
readier  disposal  at  large  prices 
than  any  other  bird.  The  public 
voice  has  recognized  it  as  the 
bird  for  the  English  farmyard; 
it  is  altogether  the  pet  of  John  Bull,  as  possessing  great  and  good 
qualities  without   ostentation  and  clamor.     The  history  of  our  county 


Froui  a  drawing  by  Harrison  IVei 
FRONT    VIEW    OF    A    DEAD    DORKING, 
SHOWING    BREAST 


*  I  only  use  the  word  "Dorking"   as  indicating  the  old  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey 
five-toed  fowls. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      477 

town  [Derby]  records  no  less  than  three  poultry  sales  by  public  auction, 
and  at  each  of  these  the  Dorking  fowl  obtained  the  highest  bidding — good 
hens  selling  for  as  much  as  t,os.  each;  and  further,  the  most  successful 
breeder  of  Dorking  fowls  is,  at  this  moment,  selling  his  eggs  readily  at 
three  guineas  per  dozen.  These  and  the  Game-fowl  are  the  true  British 
poultry.  They  are  racy  of  the  soil,  and  come  down  to  us,  like  many  other 
good  things,  from  a  remote  antiquity.  If  it  were  possible  to  engraft  the 
hardihood  and  quality  of  the  latter  upon  the  size  and  early  maturity  of 
the  former,  perfection  would  be  obtained.  The  veriest  gourmand  would 
ask  no  more,  for  there  would  be  quantity  and  quality  enough  to  satisfy 
the  m_ost  capacious  and  capricious  of  appetites.  Tenderness  and  plumpness 
would  go  hand-in-hand  with  juiciness.  The  Dorking  fowl  stands  pre- 
eminent as  the  fowl  for  the  table.  Those  persons,  and  those  only,  who 
saw  and  studied  Pen  i6o  at  the  Birmingham  show  of  1853  can  form  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  size,  quality,  and  beauty  of  a  first-rate  Dorking  fowl. 
They  were  the  birds  of  the  exhibition,  and  before  them  the  whole  tribe  of 
Spanish,  Cochins,  black,  white,  brown  and  buff,  'paled  their  ineffectual 
fires.'  .  .  .  Thirty-five  pounds'  Vv^eight  of  the  most  delicious  meat 
under  heaven  were  there  enshrined  in  their  beautiful  forms,  and  robed  in 
plumage  in  which  richness  and  grace  struggled  for  ascendency." — Tlie 
Derby  Reporter,  1854. 

After  i860,  the  Dorkings  were  said  to  be  more  massive ;  certainly  they 
were  larger  in  bone,  coarser  in  flesh,  rough  and  loose  in  feather;  dark  grays, 
silver-grays,  and  dark,  almost  black,  hens  with  gray  breasts  became  the 
fashion,  and  gradually  classes  were  for  these  only ;  even  in  those  for  color, 
if  any  reds  or  browns  were  sent  for  competition,  they  were  said  to  be  in 
the  "wrong  class,"  though  not  disqualified,  and  as  a  rule  "passed";  thus 
the  craze  of  "  outer"  breeding  grew,  and  the  Malay  was  brought  into  requi- 
sition again  and  again.  The  most  curious  part  of  all  this  was  that  the 
different  breeds  engrafted  on  the  Dorking,  Kent,  and  Sussex  fowls,  as  I 
have  pointed  out,  was  not  done  to  improve  the  Cochin,  the  Brahma,  the 
John  Douglas  black,  white-shanked  fowl,  or  lastly  the  dry -fleshed,  scaly- 
feathered  Malay ;  but  with  a  fatuity  seldom,  if  ever,  excelled  it  was  said, 
no  matter  how  erroneously,  that  it  was  done  to  benefit  the  old  English 
fowl — the  perfection  of  centuries. 

As  is  well  known,  by  long  experience,  to  breeders  of  any  stock,  cross- 
breeds bred  inter  se  will  sooner  or  later  revert  to  one  or  the  other  of  the 


478  The  Poultry  Book 

varieties  used  to  produce  them ;  and  thus  it  was  that  in  some  cases  the  old 
EngHsh  form  was  extinguished  by  the  Cochin  or  the  Brahma,  and  the 
progeny  became  at  last  like  to  an  inferior  one  of  either ;  but  the  old  type 
of  breed  was  sometimes  the  strongest,  and  the  Asiatic  element  to  some 
extent  expelled.  So  it  might  have  been,  and  in  some  instances  it  was,  the 
best  in  form  and  the  whitest  in  flesh  and  fat,  and  by  other  careful  selections 
the  old  form  was  partially  retained.  Thus  the  sooty  shank  color  was 
being  gradually  eliminated,  and  would  possibly  by  this  time  have  been 
nearly  or  quite  so  had  the  judges  acted  as  true  to  the  old  breed  as  honest 
John  Baily  endeavored.  But  this  was  expecting  too  much;  the  lumpy 
coarseness  of  the  cross-bred  larger  fowl  still  prevailed  to  the  almost  total 
extinction  of  the  old  and  finer  quality.  Aye  !  and  even  Baily  was  obliged 
to  give  in  to  others.  Breeders  of  experience  know  that  when  fowls  with 
yellow  shanks,  feet,  etc.,  are  crossed  with  those  of  white  it  is  to  the  detri- 
ment of  both.  If  yellow  is  to  be  the  outcome,  it  is  browned  or  blacked ;  if 
white,  it  is  almost  the  same,  being  blurred  and  stained ;  but  if  bred  inter  se, 
the  one  or  the  other  color  prevails.  And  so  it  was  that  when  real  Dorking 
fanciers  refrained  from  further  intermixtures  of  foreign  blood,  the  old 
English  fowl  again  partially  asserted  itself;  and  in  some  cases,  where  the 
white-shanked  pit-Game-cocks  were  used,  the  produce  somewhat  nearly 
resembled  our  poultry  of  the  farm  before  the  arrival  of  the  Shanghai, 
Cochin,  Brahma,  or  the  Malay  crossing.  Again,  in  the  show-pens  the 
closer-feathered,  better-formed,  and  finer -fleshed  birds  were  getting  once 
more  "in  evidence."  But  this  happy  state  of  things  was  not  allowed  to 
last  long,  for,  what  with  neophyte  judges,  lecturers  and  a  press  ever  ready  to 
publish  the  opiniones  fallacioscc  of  every  agitator  of  variability  and  crossing 
as  needful  to  progress  or  said-to-be  improvement,  those  that  upheld  purity 
of  breed  as  the  flrst  and  chief  consideration  had  a  sorry  time  of  it,  many  of 
whom,  grown  gray  in  the  fancy,  were  scoffed  at  and  flouted  by  those  who 
had  yet  to  learn  the  strength  and  value  of  the  natural  forces  that  are  ever 
present  and  at  work,  enlarging  or  reducing  either  one  quality  or  the  other. 
Gradually  and  by  careful  selection  the  Dorking  has  become  or  is 
becoming  more  valuable,  and  is  likely  to  be  one  of  our  best  table  fowls. 
Again  we  are  sometimes  getting  the  soft-scaled,  flesh-colored  shanks  and 
feet,  and  the  general  massive  appearance  is  being  regained,  ample  in  form, 
but  almost  too  much  so  in  looseness  in  feathers,  yet  the  Dorking  is  rising 
in  public  estimation.     At  present  the  breast -keel  is  too  deep,  as  it  gives 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls     479 


From  a  photograph 


CHAMPION    SILVER   DORKING    COCK. 
Owned  by  Arthur  C.  Major 


a  flat-sided  appearance  that  it  formerly  did  not  possess,  being  in  breast 
more  the  shape  of  the  old  English  Game,  which  to  the  uninitiated  looks 
flat,  and  wanting,  as  they  say,  depth ;  but  experience  and  knowledge  of 
the  fowl  when  stripped  for  table  show  it  to  be  far  otherwise. 

Of  late  no  fowl  has  made  more  progress,  both  in  beauty  and  utility, 
than  the  Silver-gray  Duckwing  Dorking  (1887);  it  is  truly  a  grand  and 


480  The   Poultry    Book 

handsome  bird  and  generally  of  excellent  quality,  being  finer  than  its 
congener,  the  dark-colored  exhibition  variety,  which  is  decidedly  coarser 
in  bone,  flesh,  and  feathering.  Still,  the  breed  is  a  valuable  one,  though 
differing  much  from  the  old  type;  both  were  and  are  good  when 
the  latter  can  be  found  true.  For  my  own  part,  I  have  a  preference  for 
the  old  style,  liking  a  close-feathered,  compact,  square-made,  smaller- 
boned  fowl,  and  one  which  generally  is  both  hardy  and  prolific. 

Besides  being  good  table  fowls,  the  Dorkings  are  good  mothers,  and 
the  chickens,  when  understood,  are  easily  reared,*  as  witness  the  healthy 
flocks  of  chickens  in  our  southern  homesteads  half  a  century  and  more  ago, 
before  the  coming  of  the  Asiatic  Shanghais  or  Brahmas. 

Now  I  will  take  what  Mr.  Tegetmeier  says  in  the  official  report  on  the 
dead  poultry  exhibited  for  competition  at  the  show  of  the  Dairy  Farmers' 
Association,  1892  :  "  It  is  stated  that  the  judge,  Mr.  John  Baily  "  (grandson 
of  the  John  Baily  before  mentioned),  "is  convinced  that  there  is  no  fowl 
equal  to  the  pure  Dorking"  (and  in  this  he  was  right,  as  will  be  presently 
shown).  "The  value  of  this  remark  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
the  medal  for  the  best  entry  of  dead  poultry  exhibited  at  the  show  was 
awarded  to  Miss  Gubbins,  of  Cork,  for  cross-bred  fowls  between  the  Indian 
Game  and  Dorking  breed,  f  and  in  the  manner  I  have  advocated  for  so 
many  years.  The  success  of  this  lady  is  not  exceptional  with  the  same 
strain ;  she  has  always  maintained  the  very  highest  position  whenever  her 
fowls  have  been  exhibited." 

It  so  happened  that  I  saw  these  birds,  and,  having  the  advantage  of 
my  early  training,  I  pointed  out  that,  although  the  breasts  were  meaty, 
they  were  lean,  and  that  most  likely  they  fatted  in  the  wrong  place,  viz., 
inside.  To  prove  whether  I  was  right,  I  bought  the  pair.  They  were 
very  carefully  weighed,  measured,  etc.,  and  I  now  turn  to  my  notes  on 
them.  They  weighed,  when  I  got  home,  one,  six  and  a  quarter  pounds, 
and  the  other  six  pounds,  and  were  to  the  ordinary  observer  a  very  fine 
pair.  They  were  sent  to  the  kitchen,  and  my  cook  was  told  to  bring  me 
the  offal,  etc.,  to  be  weighed  and  inspected;  she  came  up  and  said  that  in 

*  Here  at  Appledore  (February  3,  1902),  I  have  ten  Dorking  chickens  well  and 
healthy,  although  the  weather  has  been  intensely  cold,  rainy,  and  windy,  and  the  soil  is 
of  clay,  and  wet. 

t  An  illustration  of  this  prize  fowl  will  be  found  on  page  22  of  the  present  work, 
■where  it  was  wrongly  described  as  a  Dorking  and  Plymouth  Rock  instead  of  Dorking  and 
Indian  Game.     The  error  first  occurred  in  the  English  edition. — Editor. 


Kent,   Sussex,  Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls      481 

all  her  experience— and  she  had  had  much— she  had  never  found  so  much 
fat  in  the  inside  of  any  fowl.  The  fat  alone  inside  *  the  one  of  six  and  a 
quarter  pounds  weight  was  just  over  two  pounds,  and  with  the  head, 
neck,  legs,  intestines, 
etc.,  made  just  an- 
other pound;  so  this 
desirable  fowl  lost 
nearly  half  its  weight 
in  offal.  I  directed 
the  cook  to  skewer 
the  fat  over  the  lean 
breast  to  help  "baste 
it."  The  smaller  one 
also  had  nearly  two 
pounds  of  fat  and 
offal  inside,  etc.,  and, 
as  I  anticipated,  the 
breast  meat  was  dry 
and  hard  when  cooked. 
The  other  details  are 
too  long  to  go  into. 
So  much  for  Miss 
G  u  b  b  i  n  s  '  s  cross- 
breeds, quoted  as 
better  than  the  Dork- 
ings. Mr.  Baily  was 
right,  and  "a  long 
way  right." 

It  will  interest 
my  readers  to  know 
that  I  wrote  Miss 
Gubbins,  pointing  out 
the    loss    in    offal    in 

the      Cornish      Indian      cross,     and,     after     reading     Mr.     Tegetmeier's 
remarks.    Miss    Gubbins's    reply    will    probably    surprise    others,    as    it 

*  Very  fat  gizzard  and  liver,  with  the  pure  fat  elsewhere,  the  intestines  being  laid  in 
masses  of  fat. 


From  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Wei: 
DORKING   COCKEREL 
Dairy  Show,  1888 


482 


The    Poultry    Book 


certainly  did  me.  She  informed  me  that  "she  did  not  keep  any 
particular  fowl  or  breed  of  them,  as  she  only  had  a  small  back  yard,  and 
that  her  French  cook  bought  such  fowls  as  she  liked  and  fatted  them  up 
for  her  own  table — that  was  all;  and  she  never  sold  any." 

Afterward  Miss  Gubbins  won  with  a  pure  Dorking,  and  she  sent  me 
as  a  present  a  half-bred  Dorking  and  a  Plymouth  Rock,  fairly  fatted,  of 
which  I  have  notes,  etc.  "The  French  cook"  sent  me  her  method  of 
fatting,  which  I  have;  it  is  all  in  French.  I  must  be  pardoned  if  I  have 
not  been  greatly  influenced  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier's  remarks  about  Miss 
Gubbins  and  her  breed  of  fowls. 

Now,  lastly,  I   will  give  what  I  deem  to  be  a  most  truly  valuable 


PRIZE    DORKING    COCKEREL    OF    lOO.i; 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking   Fowls     483 

opinion  regarding  our  Dorkings  as  table  poultry,  and  with  which  I  most 
heartily  and  entirely  agree,  for  it  is  true.  Here  it  is.  It  is  Mr.  Teget- 
meier's  own  opinion  of  the  Dorking  in  his  book,  "Profitable  Poultry," 
which  I  illustrated  in  1853-54.  Yes;  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
opinions  he  has  ever  given,  and  the  honest  truth,  as  I  know  by  a 
lifelong  experience. 

Page  42  (1854):  "For  market  fowls  for  table  use  the  colored  Dor- 
king is  unequaled. 

"Many  persons  recommend  cross-breeding  fowls  for  this  purpose  of 
improving  certain  varieties.  It  is  difficult  to  see  by  what  cross  the  qualities 
of  Dorkings  as  table  fowls  can  be  improved.* 

"I  have  myself,  however,  never  seen  any  cross-bred  fowls  equal  for 
the  table  to  the  pure  Dorkings." 

This  from  the  1853  edition: 

"The  plan  of  crossing  breeds  for  the  purpose  of  improving  them  is 
fallacious  in  the  extreme.  By  what  cross  can  the  good  qualities  of  the 
Dorking  be  improved  ? 

"It  is  said  that  the  hardihood  of  birds  is  improved  by  crossing.  If  I 
state  the  result  of  my  own  experience,  it  would  be  precisely  the  opposite 
opinion.  I  have  found  that  my  half-bred  chickens  (of  which  I  have  reared 
for  curiosity  several  varieties)  have  been  less  hardy  than  those  of  pure 
race  which  have  been  carefully  bred  from  parents  not  related  to  one  another. 
Another  serious  evil  attending  cross-bred  birds  is  the  uncertainty  in  the 
color,  form,  and  general  character  of  the  chickens.  After  one  or  two 
generations  they  are  certain  to  throw  back  toward  one  or  the  other  of 
their  parent  stocks,  producing  worthless  specimens  of  mongrelism." 

This  is  true,  and  "the  people"  are  now  finding  it  so,  and  how  cruelly 
they  have  been  deceived  by  worthless  advice  as  to  crossing  "this"  with 
"that,"  and  thus  our  very  best  table  fowls  are  being  ruined — permanently 
ruined  !  Here  is  more  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier's  advice,  all  true  and  good ;  but 
not  what  he  advocates  now.f 

"I  would  strongly  recommend  persons  who  are  at  present  breeding 
from  common  fowls  not  to  attempt  to  improve  them  by  introduction  of  one 
or  two  good  male  birds  into  the  yard,  but  to  obtain  a  good  stock  either  by 

*  This  was  in  1853,  of  which  time  Mr.  Lewis  Wright  wrote  that  I  wished  to  ruin  the 
Dorking  by  bringing  it  back  to  what  it  then  was. 

t  See  his  edition  of  "Poultry  Book,"  1867. 


484  The    Poultry    Book 

purchase  or  eggs  and  breed  from  them  alone,  avoiding,  of  course,  all 
intermarriage  between  blood  relations." 

This  is  Mr.  Tegetmeier  at  his  best,  and  this  is  good  advice.  ]\Iy 
readers — for  the  good  of  our  poultry,  for  the  good  of  our  country — follow  it ! 

If  the  Utility  Club  would  take  up  the  matter  with  due  earnestness, 
and  try  to  restore  the  old  breed,  and  help  to  maintain  pure  breeds  of  known 
usefulness,  instead  of  simply  wandenng  among  "boomed"  and  varying 
mongrels,  they  would  then  achieve  something  that  might  gain  the  appro- 
bation of  the  thinking  and  experienced  breeders  of  poultry  either  for  the 
table  or  egg-production. 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  Dorkings,  etc.,  if  kept  in  confinement 
deteriorate  in  size,  bulkiness,  and  quality ;  but  none  have  pointed  out  the 
reason  why ;  the  fact  being,  that  both  it  and  the  old  English  Game,  or  any 
other  good  table  fowl,  must  have  liberty  of  action — such  as  flying,*  jump- 
ing, scratching,  with  any  or  every  kind  of  exercise  to  fully  develop  the 
muscles  (flesh).  If  this  is  denied,  then  the  shrinkage,  for  want  of  use,  of 
that  development  ensues,  and  no  matter  how  good  and  true  the  breed  is, 
the  birds  if  well  fed  become  gouty,  bumble-footed,  inert,  idle,  and  diseased. 
They  are  essentially  in  all  ways  a  farmyard  fowl  of  the  best,  and  should, 
nay  must,  have  to  keep  them  always  in  perfection  wide  grass  ranges,  sheds, 
stacks,  and  stock-yards,  with  trees  and  coverts  to  roost  in. 

If  on  the  farm  it  is  needful  to  keep  them  shut  up  at  night,  then  the 
poultry -house  should  be  made  large  with  tolerably  high  perches,  so  that 
they  must  fly  up  to  roost,  with  a  soft  material  for  flooring,  such  as  peat 
moss,  or  well-loosened,  not  gritty,  mold,  at  least  six  inches  deep,  on  which 
to  descend ;  the  perches  must  be  so  placed  that  they  can  fly  down  obliquely. 
In  my  own  fowl-house  I  prefer  four  or  five  inches  of  yellow  deal  sawdust, 
which  is  cool  and  soft  for  the  fett,  and  destructive  of  insect  life.  This 
also  is  used  for  the  nest-boxes,  with  good  eft'ect,  for  the  same  reasons, 
while  straw,  heath,  or  hay  has  an  opposite  tendency  in  regard  to  vermin. 

In  mating  Dorkings,  Kents,  etc.,  it  has  always  been  found  by  experi- 
ence that  two-  or  not  more  than  three-year-old  hens,  of  large  frame,  short 
legs,  and  medium  shanks,  are  the  best  for  the  stag  cock — that  is,  a  cockerel 
in  his  second  year,  a  full  cock  being  in  his  third  year.     In  either  case  he 

*  My  present  fowls  fly  over  a  six-foot  wire  partition  easily,  and  the  cock,  wishing  to^ 
come  straight  home  from  an  adjoining  meadow,  flew  across  some  of  it  and  cleared  a  five- 
foot  hedge  by  at  least  three  feet. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,  and    Dorking    Fowls      485 


should  be  very  compact  in  shape,  hearty,  strong,  and  full  of  life.  If  a 
little  less  in  size  than  usual  it  is  not  a  fault,  for  big,  bony,  heavy  birds  are 
generally  lethargic,  and  are  by  no  means  so  useful,  nor  are  they  so  prolific. 
Let  the  shanks  and  feet  be  of  a  pure  white  or  flesh  color,  with  all  white 
toe-nails;  even  one  dark  toe-nail  must  he  strictly  avoided  as  well  as  those  of 
a  yellow  tendency,  as  it  is  an  indication  of  cross-breeding,  and  will  almost 
certainly  eventually  produce  Eooty  shanks  and  feet. 

Present-Day    Dorkings 

The  so-called  Dorking  is  (1898-99)  gradually,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
surely,  winning  its  way  again  into  the  position  as  one  of,  if  not  the  best  of, 
all  fowls  for  table  purposes.  Much  has  yet  to  be  done  to  restore  the  old 
form — the  fine  rounded  breast,  high  quahty  of  flesh,  and  the  early  propen- 
sity it  had  for  fattening  and  finishing  at  a  few  weeks  or  months  old.  There 
was  a  fulness  and  plumpness  in  the  yoimg  birds  possessed  by  no  other 
breed,  with  the  exception  of  the  old  English  Game,  and  with  which  there 
is  plenty  of  proof  that  it  was  not 
infrequently  interbred,  losing', 
nothing  thereby,  but  somewhat  in 
size,  and  even  this  rapidly  enlarged 
when  left  among  "the  usual  run" 
in  the  farmyard,  though  the  vigor 
and  alertness  imparted  by  the 
Game-cock  cross  was  long  apparent. 
Thus  it  was  that  the  old  southern 
fowls,  as  before  noted,  were  close- 
feathered,  hearty  and  good  feeders 
and  foragers,  and  none  the  less 
so  in  such  localities  where  Game- 
fowls  were  much  in  evidence.  But 
even  without  any  such  admixture 
the  old  English  breed  were  of 
super-excellence,  of  large  size, 
fleshy,  well  feathered,  full  tailed, 
and  particularly  handsome. 

It  was  with  the  Shanghai  cross  that  the  looser  plumage  first  appeared, 
and  that  as  far  back  as  1849-50.     Then  again,  with  the  advent  of  the  so- 


;/ 


SILVER    DORKING    PULLET 
Crystal  Palace,  1891 


486 


The   Poultry    Book 


called  Brahma,  more  crossing  and  less  compactness,  deeper  keel  to  the 
breast-bone,  and  coarser,  darker  flesh ;  then  the  John  Douglas  black  fowl 
cross,  and  more  and  more  mongrelism,  and  so  on  again  and  again  with 
Cochin,  Brahma,  and  others,  until  the  red  ear-lobe  self -testified  the  fulness 
of  foreign  bood,  while  the  length  and  want  of  closeness  in  feather  told  but 
too  truly  the  general  source  of  the  long-fiber  flesh  deterioration.  It  is 
with  this  that  the  Dorking  fancier  of  the  present  has  to  combat,  and  from 
such  endeavor  to  restore  the  finer  texture  of  the  breast -meat  that  the 
far  too  liberal  use  of  the  Asiatic  breeds  has  so  materially  and  so  lastingly 
injured.     This  will  have  to  be  done  by  a  reversion  to  the  old  southern 

breeders'  tactics  of  choos- 
ing the  best-breasted, 
closest -feathered,  pure 
white-shanked,  having 
white  feet  and  toe-nails, 
with  white  ear-lobes,  or 
that  of  infusing  the 
blood  and  purest  breed 
of  the  old  English  white- 
shanked  Game-cock.  I 
know  of  no  other  satis- 
factory means,  or  any 
"restful"  w^ith  so  much  chance  of 

success  in  restoring  the 
fineness  of  flesh  as  this,  still  retaining,  as  it  will,  the  full-breasted 
plumpness  so  characteristic  of  the  grand  old  breed. 

A  short  time  ago  I  had  the  pleasure  of  inspecting  the  fine  flocks  of 
Colored,  Silver  and  White  Dorkings  of  Mr.  Herbert  Reeves  at  Emsworth, 
Hants.  Here  was  a  double  attraction,  for  this  ardent  and  well-known 
Dorking  fancier  had  just  purchased  the  whole  of  Air.  Padwick's  *  stock  of 
colored  birds,  which  when  united  with  those  of  Emsworth  made  an  aggre- 
gate number  of  over  five  hundred  cocks,  cockerels,  hens,  and  pullets,  all 
well  housed  and  carefully  tended.  On  entering  one  meadow  a  score 
or  more  of  black-breasted,  silver-gray  cockerels  came  running  toward  us, 
each  and  all  good  in  form,  short-shanked,  and  fine  in  color,  putting  one 
in  mind  of  a  troop  of  yeomanry  cavalry,  with  their  dark  uniforms,  white 
*  With  these  Mr.  Padwick  incorporated  Mr.  O.  E.  Cresswell's  strain  of  dark  birds. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,  and    Dorking    Fowls      487 

braidings  and  facings;  while  of  Dorkings  no  group  of  "  silvers"  ever  showed 
to  better  advantage  than  they  in  the  bright  light  of  the  morning  sun  when 
"halted"  on  the  green  turf  in  varied  attitudes  of  quiet  surprise.  Not 
many  yards  could  show  their  equal,  as  was  abundantly  proved  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  a  few  weeks  afterward,  when  Mr.  Reeves  made  "the 
record"  in  the  Silver-gray  Dorking  cockerel  class  by  winning  all  the  prizes, 
five  in  number,  and  a  V.  H.  C.  From  photographs  kindly  taken  expressly 
for  me  I  am  enabled  to  give  pictures  of  some  of  the  best,  also  of  several 
silver  hens  and  a  few  of  the  darker-colored  show  champions.  And  here 
it  would  be  well  to  observe  that  the  difference  between  the  two  breeds  was 
well  defined,  the  former  still  showing  clear  evidence  of  the  old  English 
Game  cross,  used  so  many  years  ago  to  obtain  the  quality  and  color  which 
they  now  possess  in  such  a  remarkable  degree;  while  their  heavier  and 
darker  brethren  told  us  unmistakably,  by  the  length  and  looseness  of 
feathering  and  smallness  of  tails,  with  largeness  of  bone,  how  much  the 
eastern  blood  still  prevailed.  And  yet,  what  noble,  massive,  big  birds 
they  were,  with  a  character  of  grandeur  that  no  other  breed  possesses. 
In  weight,  many  of  the  cocks  exceeded  twelve,  while  several  hens  were 
well  over  ten  pounds — quite  large  enough  for  any  table  purposes,  and  for 
such,  where  coarseness  is  to  be  strictly  avoided,  perhaps  a  little  more  than 
full-sized. 

In  conversation  with  Mr.  Reeves  I  learned  that,  as  I  anticipated,  he 
still  had  some  difficulty  in  breeding  to  the  old  style  of  pure  white  shanks 
and  feet,  though  he  had  gone  zealously  to  work  in  that  direction,  with  the 
full  intention  of  making  the  breed  revert  to  what  once  was  not  the 
exception,  but  the  rule. 

One  fact  to  be  noted  was,  that  the  birds  of  the  purest  color  and  best 
shanks  were  those  that  had  the  ear-lobes  of  bluish-white.  It  was  most 
instructive  to  note  the  peculiarities  of  individual  birds,  though  all  were 
bred  to  "a  type";  yet,  as  seen  daily  in  human  beings,  no  two  were  pre- 
cisely alike.  To  the  ordinary  observer  the  slightly  apparent  differences 
were  but  small,  though  to  the  fancier  remarkable;  while  out  of  such  a 
large  number  it  was  surprising  how  well  the  quality  sought  for  was  main- 
tained, both  as  to  size  and  body  color.  Much  of  this  was  no  doubt  due 
to  careful  "weeding"  when  in  the  chicken  or  younger  state,  and  it  is  alone 
by  such  revision  that  anything  like  success  can  or  ever  will  be  achieved. 

The  Captain  Hornby  of  to-day  (perhaps  a  relative  ?)  worthily  sus- 


488  The    Poultry    Book 

tains  the  high  character  and  prestige  of  the  "  Knowsley  Cottage"  poultry, 
so  far-famed  half  a  century  ago,  then  the  home  of  Captain  Hornby*  (after- 
ward "Admiral"),  who  possessed  in  "the  fifties"  some  of  the  very  best 
close -feathered,  clear  white-shanked  colored  Dorkings  then  in  competi- 
tion. Whether  the  Captain  of  to-day  holds  any  descendants  of  these  I 
know  not ;  but  one  thing  is  certain,  and  that  is,  he  has  among  modem 
Dorkings  some  of  the  best,  and  not  only  that,  but  has  repeatedly  protested 
against  the  craze  for  size  in  the  Dorking  as  actually  depreciating  the  value 
of  the  breed.     With  this  I  heartily  agree. 

In  the  Dorking  Club  standard  of  excellence,  recently  published,  there 
is  a  foot-note  which  for  the  guidance  of  the  to-day  Dorking  fancier  points 
out  that  the  true  breed  should  have  red  ear-lobes.  Who  is  responsible  for 
this  I  know  not ;  but  of  this  I  have  no  doubt  whatever — in  fact,  I  am 
perfectly  certain,  that  no  one  would  make  such  an  assertion  unless  they 
were  lamentably  ignorant  of  the  origin  of  the  true  old  breed.  Never, 
until  the  red-ear-lobed  Cochins  and  Brahmas  were  crossed  into  the  southern 
five-toed  fowls,  was  such  a  thing  seen ;  and  further,  not  any  one  of  the 
show  birds  of  the  very  early  fifties  had  red  ear-lobes,  though  slightly  stained, 
until  the  time  of  the  Douglas  cross ;  and  then  but  few  years  later  the 
original  Dorking  standard  of  perfection  says  "ear-lobes  whitish."  It  is 
this  utter  ignorance  of  facts  that  has  led  this  and  other  clubs  besides  the 
Dorking  not  only  to  commit  errors,  but  to  persist  in  them.  The  so-called 
Dorking  is  a  European — an  old  English  fowl,  and  as  such  never  had  a  red 
ear-lobe  nor  ever  was  so  described.  It  was  a  good  omen,  that  of  whitish 
ear-lobes  birds  winning  at  the  last  Palace  show,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  the 
Dorking  Club  will  correct  without  delay  their  utterly  erroneous  declara- 
tion in  their  standard  of  excellence  as  to  the  red  ear-lobe.  It  may  be  "a 
fad"  of  some  foolish  person  who  "likes  to  see  a  red  ear-lobe,"  but  to  say 
it  is  the  only  correct  color  shows  but  too  clearly  a  want  of  knowledge  in 
those  who  would  teach  that  which  is  not  only  absolutely  deplorable,  but 
must  prove  disastrous  to  the  breed  in  many  ways. 

The  Dorking  of  to-day  is  a  large,  five -toed  composite  fowl,  the  foot 

*  In  1858  Captain  Hornby  was  an  exhibitor  at  the  Birmingham  Christmas  Poultry 
Show.  His  first-prize  pen  of  four  Dorking  chickens,  though  in  lean  condition,  weighed 
thirty-five  pounds;  and  he  also  won  the  first  prize  with  his  Dorking  hens.  At  this  show 
White  Dorkings  of  increased  size  were  much  admired;  altogether,  the  Dorking  entries 
consisted  of  188  pens.  In  1852  there  were  separate  classes  for  Dorkings  with  rose  and 
also  with   single  combs. 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls     489 


From  a  photograph  hy  NightinznU  &■  Langley,  Bucks 
CHAMPION    DARK    DORKING   HEN 
Owned  by  Arthur  C.  Major 


formation  being  considered  by  some  of  very  limited  knowledge  as  a  proof 
of  purity  of  breed ;  whereas  it  is  no  criterion  whatever  in  that  respect,  there 
being  hosts  of  the  veriest  mongrels  having  the  five-toe  appendage.  What 
showed,  and  should  not  show,  the  true  breed  of  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey 
five-toed  fowls  was  the  clear  white  fleshy  shanks  and  feet ;  and  of  these, 
purely  so,  there  was  at  one  time  such  an  abimdance  that  at  the  poultry 
markets  they  might  be  seen  by  the  score,  in  this  respect  "perfection"; 
while  in  form  and  quality  there  was  nothing  left  to  be  desired.  Another 
sign  of  their  "blue  blood"  was  the  white  ear-lobe.  These  were  not  merely 
"fancy  points,"  but  distinctive,  unmistakable  indications  of  the  race,  and 


490  The    Poultry    Book 

were  then  and  before  any  poultry  show  existed  known  throughout  the 
world  as  the  very  finest  table  fowls.  In  every  respect  they  differed  from 
others  in  make,  quahty  of  flesh,  and  general  habits;  but  beyond  all 
they  were — I  say  "were"  advisedly — with  the  exception  of  the  white- 
shanked  old  English  Game,  the  only  pure  white-shanked,  white-footed 
fowls  in  existence.  As  such,  apart  from  all  other  considerations  of  utility, 
one  would  have  thought  that  every  endeavor  would  have  been  made  to 
keep  such  a  superb  variety  intact,  instead  of  which  they  have  been  more 
beset  by  the  crossing-mongrel  craze  than  any  other,  as  though  they  lacked 
that  which  they  possessed  in  extreme  degree — "excellence." 

There  is  not  much  more  to  chronicle  than  has  already  been  said. 
But  little,  if  any,  advance  has  been  made  in  quality,  though  the  general 
outcome  of  somewhat  more  careful  selection  is  an  evenness  of  form  and 
character  that  has  been  so  long  earnestly  desired  not  only  by  the  Dorking 
fanciers  themselves,  but  by  the  commimity  at  large.  In  a  neighborhood 
where  the  Dorking  is  "the  fowl"  there  will  most  certainly  be  foimd 
the  finest  early  chickens,  for  these,  even  when  very  young,  fatten  more 
quickly  than  any  other,  and  they  feather  better — at  least,  this  is  my  experi- 
ence. The  Buff  Orpington  is  one  that  has  been  eulogized  as  having  such 
properties  in  excess,  but  with  my  Dorking  chickens  of  the  same  age  they 
proved  themselves  no  laggards  in  this  respect,  the  five-toed  true  birds 
being  ready  nearly  a  fortnight  in  advance,  while  the  color  of  the  flesh 
and  the  fulness  and  plumpness  of  the  breast  made  them  a  much  more 
presentable  table  and  market  fowl.  They  had  a  fair  trial,  but  being  less 
than  an  improvement  on  the  old  stock  the  latter  was  found  to  be  not 
only  more  profitable  but  far  superior  in  other  ways.  Still  as  time  wears  on 
the  pernicious  advice  is  given  that  crossing  the  Dorking  improves  it  as 
a  table  fowl,  and  the  yellow-skinned,  somewhat  yellow-fleshed  and  fat 
Cornish  Indian  is  the  one  yet  unblushingly  put  for^vard  as  the  breed  tend- 
ing to  perfect  that  which  already  has  no  peer.  Most  breeders  of  the  finest 
table  fowls  who  have  tried  the  blend  have  truly  said  that  the  yellowing 
of  the  chicken  flesh  and  fat  made  them  less  salable  than  the  Dorking 
pure  and  simple. 

Another  point  noticeable  is  that  the  Dorking  judges  are  now  instructed 
to  look  for  squareness  of  form  more  than  the  elongated  absurdity  that 
was  at  one  time  considered  to  be  a  better  table  fowl,  when,  in  reality,  it 
was  a  worse,  for  certain  it  is  that  a  broad,  deep  breast  is  far  better  than  a 


PRIZE    DORKING    COCKEREL 
Dairy  Show,  1895 


Kent,   Sussex,   Surrey,   and   Dorking  Fowls      493 

longer  one,  the  end  portion  being  so  shallow  as  to  be  dry  in  fiber  and  gener- 
ally fatless.  Again,  it  must  be  clear  to  the  reflective  and  reasoning  mind 
that  as  the  whole  of  the  breast  flesh  consists  of  muscular  development 
necessary  to  move  the  wings,  therefore  that  quantity  of  power  must  be 
better  when  placed  in  the  front  part  of  the  fowl,  and  if  so  it  is  thicker, 
also  more  juicy,  richer,  and  flavory  than  when  the  breast  cut  is  long, 
narrow,  and  thus  dryer.  Nature  always  provides  that  which  is  the  best, 
and  the  short,  square-made  form,  like  that  of  the  breast  of  the  grouse,  is 
infinitely  superior  to  any  out-lengthened  and  unnatural  formation.  A 
really  good  Dorking  should  be  heart-shaped,  like  the  old  English  Game, 
and  any  divergence  from  such  is  a  loss,  or  at  least  by  no  means  a  gain. 
A  fowl  to  have  a  long  and  deep  breast  is  a  physical  impossibility,  though 
there  are  those  ignorant  of  Nature's  laws  who  yet  advocate  such  as  having 
more  flesh  than  the  square-made  bird,  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  the 
strong,  short-winged,  quick-flying  birds  ever  have  the  greatest  chest 
muscular  development.  Besides  which,  experience  teaches  that  long- 
bodied  fowls  have  generally  the  weaker  constitutions ;  therefore  to  advo- 
cate such  shows  a  want  of  knowledge,  due  consideration  and  understanding 
of  Nature's  absolute  laws  and  requirements,  which  by  themselves  produce 
a  desired  form  of  the  greatest  utility  value. 

Of  the  general  show  Dorkings,  the  silver-gray  has  decidedly  advanced 
in  quality  to  what  it  was  some  twenty  years  ago,  when  sooty  shanks  and 
feet  were  awarded  prizes  as  though  they  were  worthy  of  them,  while  their 
owners  grew  irate  when  told  of  the  impurity  of  their  stock.  Such  birds 
would  now  be  imnoticed  by  the  judges,  and  deservedly  so.  Therefore  it 
is  gratifying  to  find  almost  the  whole  class  not  only  fine  in  form  and  color, 
but  with  shanks,  feet,  and  toe-nails  of  the  old  ancestral  white.  Opinions 
differ  on  the  subject,  but  it  is  none  the  less  right  that  the  silver-gray  Dor- 
king hen,  like  that  of  the  silver-gray  old  English  Game,  should  not  have 
any  other  color  but  black,  gray,  and  white,  and  the  presence  of  buff'  or 
salmon  color  on  the  throat  and  chest  denotes  that  it  is  the  hen  to  the 
custard  duckwing  cock.  Silver  is  a  pure,  light,  steel-gray,  or,  more  properly, 
the  tint  of  that  metal ;  any  other  color  whatever,  therefore,  displaces  the 
pureness  of  tone  and  it  is  no  longer  silver.  It  is  this  preference  by  some 
for  the  salmon  breast  on  the  silver  hens  that  destroys  the  vivid  brightness 
of  the  ground  color.  This  is  so  whether  the  majority  of  the  silver-gray 
fanciers  think  so  or  not,  and  one  is  generally  met  by  the  assertion,  "Well, 


494 


The  Poultry  Book 


I  like  to  see  a  salmon  throat,"  instead  of  carefully  considered  argument. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  silver  cock  is  one  color  and  the  salmon -throated  hen 
decidedly  of  another.  My  own  Gray  Dorkings  are  pure  grays,  without  the 
slightest  tint  of  any  other  color  but  black,  gray,  and  white.  This  being 
so,  if  a  hen  with  a  salmon  throat  is  put  among  them  the  difference  in 
the  tone  of  the  gray  is  at  once  apparent,  and  the  gray  shows  the  want  of 
blueness  that  is  present  in  the  white-throated  spangled  grays.  Another 
noticeable  fact  is  that  the  silver-gray  Gray  Dorking  of  1902  is  more  com- 


From  a  photograph 


PRIZE     DARK     DORKING     HEN 
Owned  and  bred  by  Herbert  Reeves 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      495 

pact,  and  the  feathering  is  closer  and  of  moderate  length,  which  was  not  so 
twenty-five  to  thirty  years  ago,  at  which  time  the  yellow-shanked  Brahma 
cross  was  conspicuous  by  the  coarser  bone  and  longer,  looser  feathers; 
and  the  consequence  of  the  Asiatic  blood  was  proved  by  the  sooty  shanks 
and  feet  and  dark  or  yellow-tinted  toe-nails.  Happily  these  are  of  the  past 
or  nearly  so,  and  it  is  to  be  believed  that  the  Silver-gray  Dorking  fancier 
is  doing  his  best  to  make  and  maintain  not  only  a  beautiful  breed  of  poultry, 
but  one  as  near  perfection  as  it  is  possible  that  the  forces  ever  present  in 
Nature  will  admit  of.  The  breed  of  to-day  is  in  far  better  hands  than  it 
was  at  the  time  mentioned,  and  faults  are  called  by  their  right  name — 
defects,  and  not  smoothed  as  "blemishes"  only,  and  the  mongrelized 
Dorking  called  good  and  valuable  because  it  was — big. 

Now  as  to  the  Dark  Dorkings  of  1902,  not  nearly  so  much  can  be 
advanced  in  their  favor  as  ' '  the  silvers ' ' ;  they  are  decidedly  more  ungainly 
and  clumsy  both  in  progression  and  their  general  habits.  In  form  there 
is  a  sort  of  rambling  line  that  is  neither  graceful  nor  pleasing ;  also  there  is 
a  looseness  of  feathering,  which  is  of  abnormal  length ;  they  are  more  bony 
and  heavily  made,  and  in  all  ways  coarser,  with  a  decidedly  sour  expres- 
sion about  the  head ;  even  the  texture  and  spiking  of  their  over-large 
combs  is  rough  and  granulated  by  comparison  with  the  lighter,  brighter 
breed.  Nor  does  careful  examination  of  the  flesh  fiber  when  prepared  for 
the  table  give  any  points  in  their  favor.  There  is  nothing,  perhaps,  that 
makes  faults  of  contour  more  clearly  visible  than  "the  camera."  Photo- 
graph the  two  breeds  and  place  the  results  side  by  side  and  the  difference 
can  be  easily  yet  perfectly  noted.  The  two  are  said  to  be  Dorkings,  yet 
devoid  of  their  feathers  the  difference  is  wide,  the  dark  generally  being  of 
the  ugly,  reprehensible,  elongated  form,  while  the  silver  is  shorter,  thicker, 
and  has  a  plumpness  of  breast  that  is  generally  absent  in  the  former.  Why 
is  this?  for  undoubtedly  it  is  so.  The  reason  is  that  it  has  been  more 
mongrelized  by  Asiatic  and  other  alliances  to  gain  size  at  the  expense  of 
quality,  and  which  is  still  unmistakably  shown  by  the  dark  toe-nails  and 
soot -tinged  feet.  Still  it  is  a  grand  fowl,  and  by  some  considered  handsome, 
but,  as  said  before,  in  such,  as  in  many  other  poultry  matters,  tastes  differ. 

The  neglect  of  these  charming  varieties  of  our  poultry  is  the  more 
inexplicable  when  so  many  new-made  breeds  are  sought  and  extolled 
for  their  alleged  high  qualities  and  gay  coloring.  There  is  no  way 
of  accounting  for  this  other  than  that  novelty  seems  for  the  time  to  possess 


496  The    Poultry  Book 

more  attraction  than  proved  sterling  merit.  The  Buff  Dorking  has  long 
been  put  aside,  though  the  form  is  superior  in  most  ways,  and  imdeniably 
so  as  a  table  fowl.  (The  Dorking  breeds  that  have  been  before  the  American 
fanciers'  public  are  the  white-colored  and  silver-gray,  with  an  occasional 
"cuckoo"  marked  (Dominique  plumaged)  specimen.) 

The  craze  of  to-day  is  for  bone  and  size ;  and  the  very  cause  and  reason 
of  the  establishment  of  poultry  shows — that  of  purity  of  breed  and  superior 
quality  to  be  the  first  consideration — is  scornfully  derided,  coarse  and 
clumsy  bigness  being  more  prized  by  the  semifancier,  half-commercial 
judge  of  to-day.  As  long  as  this  is  so,  the  best  and  most  desirable 
table  fowl  can  scarcely  hope  to  hold  with  the  public,  fanciers,  or 
farmers  that  estimation  that  it  most  justly  and  incontestably  is 
rightly  entitled  to. 

A  fowl  to  be  good  for  culinary  purposes  must  not  only  be  of  good 
form  and  fleshy,  but  one  that  will  fat  not  only  readily  but  evenly,  and 
more  particularly  on  the  breast.  It  has  already  been  observed  that  where 
the  feathers  are  longest  there  are  tracts  of  fat  formation ;  thus  it  is  that  the 
back  is  well  covered,  and  generally  much  accumulation  about  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck.  The  Dark  Dorking,  being  particularly  long  in  feathers, 
fattens  more  readily  on  these  parts  than  the  silver-grays ;  but  this  latter  is 
by  no  means  deficient,  while  the  former  would  be  greatly  improved  by 
the  flesh  being  of  finer  fiber  or  tissue,  and  this  to  a  certainty  by  a  judicious 
cross  with  the  old  English  white-shanked  Game-cock,  the  hens  being  two 
years  of  age  and  the  Game  a  stag.  This  cross  has  so  often  been  used  with 
excellent  effect  that  with  gourmands  it  is  greatly  in  request,  though  of 
course  it  is  not  so  perfect  a  fowl  as  the  true-bred  old  English  Game.  One 
of  the  worst  crosses  in  my  opinion  is  that  with  the  Cornish  Indian,  for 
the  reason  that  it  not  only  does  not  fatten  so  well  on  the  breast,  but  fre- 
quently the  whole  body  is  stained  with  a  golden  yellow,  which  renders  it 
perfectly  unsightly  and  unsalable  as  a  boiling  fowl.  (In  many  places 
in  the  United  States  dressed  fowls  of  the  yellow  color  are  preferred.) 

Therefore  it  is  more  desirable  for  general  purposes  to  keep  the  Silver- 
gray  than  the  Dark  Dorking,  especially  so  if  exhibiting  is  contemplated; 
but  if  not,  and  prize-winning  is  u'ncared  for,  but  beauty  and  utility  the 
first  object,  then  the  black-breasted  silver-spangled,  the  black-breasted 
reds,  and  the  old  gray  black-spangled  will  at  all  times  not  only  give  pleasure, 
but  add  a  most  enjoyable  charm  to  the  home  surroundings ;  also  the  white 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking    Fowls      497 

with  thin  double  or  rose-form  coral  red  combs  must  not  be  forgotten,  nor, 
by  way  of  variety,  the  cuckoos  and  cuckoo  white  spangles. 

The  Dorkings  or  old   Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  five-toed  fowls  are 


DARK   DORKING   COCKEREL 
The  winner  of  many  prizes.     Owned  by  Herbert  Reeves 


said  to  be  tender  and  difficult  to  rear ;  this  is  distinctly  untrue.  Had  they 
been  so,  they  would  not  have  held  their  own  as  our  farm  poultry  for  hun- 
dreds of  years,  and  then  were  the  very  best  of  fowls.  My  own  (old  grays, 
black-spangled)  are  kept  on  a  somewhat  low-lying  meadow,  with  a  reten- 
tive clay  subsoil,  yet  the  chickens  thrive,  grow  quickly,  and  are  out  and 
about  in  all  weathers,  seldom  or  ever  roosting  in  the  house ;  but,  whether 
wind,  rain  or  snow,  they  are  more  often  resting  on  the  outside  of  their 
house  in  a  row  along  the  top  ridge. 

They  lay  as  well  as  most  of  the  poultry  kept  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  in  some  instances  better,  often  helping  to  fill  the  egg  basket  when 
there  is  both  frost  and  snow.  For  table  the  Dorking  is  unequaled.  Other 
breeds,  because  they  are  new  and  eulogized  far  beyond  their  deserts,  have 
become  prime  favorites  with  the  many  in  consequence;  but  as  the  fowl 


498  The  Poultry    Book 

is  good,  right,  and  proper  for  the  EngHsh  homestead,  there  is,  take 
it  for  all  in  all,  nothing  to  equal  our  old,  pure-bred,  white-shanked, 
five-toed  native  beauties. 

The  White  Dorkings 

In  the  article  on  "  Poultry,"  in  Rees's  "  Cyclopaedia,"  181 9,  it  is  stated 
that  "The  Darking  [Dorking]  fowls  are  all  raised  in  the  Weald  of  Sussex, 
but  the  finest  market  for  them  is  Horsham,  the  five-clawed  of  them  being 
considered  the  best  sort;  this,  however,  may  be  a  mistake,*  and  it  took 
its  origin  with  some  of  this  peculiarity  that  happened  to  be  very  large  and 
fine,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  what  has  since  been  called  the  Darking 
or  five-toed  fowls,  and  considered  in  other  parts  of  England  as  prime  stock; 
but  such  a  thing  is  hardly  known  in  Sussex — it  is  a  bastard  breed. ' ' 

This  is  strange  reading  after  all  that  has  been  quoted  from  the  old 
writers  as  to  our  poultry  having  five  toes,  and  shows  clearly  how  little 
trouble  was  taken  to  verify  the  statements  respecting  "our  poultry. "  To 
my  certain  knowledge  the  fifth  claw  was  prized  and  noted  as  the  best  to 
keep,  both  in  Kent  and  Sussex,  long  into  the  last  century;  for  when  young 
I  have  heard  this  variety  spoken  of  by  very  old  people  as  "the  true,"  and 
their  own  breed;  also  the  whites  were  by  no  means  uncommon.  Then  the 
writer  of  the  above  said,  and  most  likely  very  truly,  that  "the  Darking 
are  all  raised  in  the  Weald  of  Sussex." 

Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  writing  in  the  Poultry  Chronicle,  Vol.  I.,  page  595, 
insists  that  the  White  Dorking  is  a  distinct  breed  from  any  other  fowl, 
and  that  it  must  have  a  rose  comb,  and  that  no  other  is  true  bred.  He  then 
describes  the  fowl  as  he  knew  it :  "  Comb  rose,  square-shaped,  and  evenly 
sprigged  and  terminated  in  a  single  point  behind,  and  not  falling  on  either 
side ;  gills  and  wattles  moderate ;  ear-lobes  whitish  (moldy) ;  beak,  shanks 
and  toes  white;  shanks  short;  toes  five  in  number,  the  hind  ones  being 
double,  well-defined,  and  raised  sHghtly  on  the  shank;  plumage  spotless 
white ;  neck  short  and  full ;  wings  and  tail  ample ;  back  broad,  stout  across 
the  loins;  breast  full  and  large,  and  the  nearer  the  body  approaches  a 
parallelogram  the  better. 

"The  White  Dorking  is  an  excellent  farmyard  fowl,  being  a  good  layer, 
a  close  sitter,  and  an  attentive  mother;  the  chickens  grow  rapidly,  and 

*The  mistake  lies  with  the  writer.  The  five-toed  fowls  have  been  noted  as  a  breed  for 
any  number  of  years,  and  so  kept  and  described,  as  old  books  and  records  prove. 


Kent,   Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking   Fowls     499 


From  a  photograph 


PRIZE      DARK      DORKING      HEN 

Owned   and  bred  by  Herbert  Reeves 


are  most  excellent  on  the  table.  The  pure  White  Dorking  may  also  be 
considered  as  fancy  as  well  as  useful,  because  they  will  breed  true  to  their 
points." 

This  is  what  the  White  Dorking  was  in  1852-53.  Mr.  Brent  has 
given  a  fairly  accurate  description  not  only  of  what  it  was,  but  what 
it  should  be ;  still  it  cannot  be  conceded,  after  what  has  been  said  as  to 
the  origin  of  Dorking  fowls,  that  it  is  "a  distinct  breed"  from  that  of  the 
Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  fowls,  or  does  not  derive  its  existence  either  from 
these  or  Roman  importation.     There  is  no  doubt  that  there  was  a  white 


500 


The   Poultry   Book 


breed  of  fowls  kept  there  or  thereabouts,  but  to  say  that  they  were  of  a 
different  ancestry  from  our  others  of  a  similar  form  is,  in  my  opinion, 
advancing  too  much,  and  is  in  some  degrees  contradicted  by  the  various 
statements  already  quoted,  particularly  those  of  Mowbray  (John 
Lawrence).  Moreover,  there  were  from  time  immemorial  white  fowls  in 
Kent,  etc.,  with  rose  or  single  combs;  and  many  of  the  old  writers,  after 
describing  the  five-toed  fowls  of  the  period,  warn  their  readers  against 
having  white  as  being  of  less  worth,  etc. 

Not  a  few  of  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  farmers  were  proud  of  their 
breed  of  white  fowls,  and  even  ducks.  The  former  mostly  had  a  rose 
comb,  as  indeed  did  many  of  the  colored,  but  they  generally  were  not 
in  favor,  and  the  old  single  comb  was  preferred. 

Colors  of  the  Dorkings 

Of  these  there  is  not  much  to  be  said,  for  the  reason  that  they  mostly 
follow  those  of  the  old  English  Game  already  enumerated  and  described; 


From  a  photograph 


PRIZE    SILVER-GRAY   DORKING   HEN 
Owned  by  Herbert  Reeves 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls      501 

but  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  give  a  few  notes  regarding  them;  the 
Dorking  or  southern  fowl  being,  as  it  is,  one  of  our  oldest  and  the  best 
of  European  breeds. 

The  White. — This  should  be  a  clear  dead  white,  without  the  slightest  tint 
of  yellow  or  any  other  color.   Some  prefer  the  eye  to  be  pearl  in  color.    I  do. 

The  Gray. — In  color  this  is  like  the  old  black-breasted  or  gray- 
breasted  Game-fowl.  Dark-gray  breasts  were  allowable  in  the  cock  when 
heavily  streaked  with  black;  these  have  no  black  wing-bar,  but  a  black 
lacing  of  the  wing  coverts.  The  hens  are  gray,  with  black  tips  to  their 
feathers,  which  should  have  white  mid-ribs  and  shafts,  white  and  gray 
on  the  upper  part  of  their  breasts. 

Dark  Gray. — These  resemble  the  black-breasted  birchen  grays,  with 
a  black  w^ing-bar.  Hens  gray  with  dark  tip  to  their  body  feathers,  breasts 
white  with  the  feathers  gray  to  dark  edging,  with  white  mid-rib. 

Reds. — Cocks,  black-breasted  reds,  with  large  full  tails,  mostly  black 
with  emerald  sheen.  The  hens  deep,  bright-chestnut  red,  with  black  tips 
to  their  body  feathers,  hackles  dark -purple  black,  wing  primaries  and 
secondaries  black  on  inside  web,  red  on  outside  web,  the  shaft  and  mid-rib 
of  the  body  feathers  a  light  bright-yellow  or  orange. 

Brown. — The  cock  the  same  as  the  foregoing,  but  of  deep  brown  or 
rich  bright  ruddy  tints,  with  dark  chestnut-colored  breast.  Hens  brown 
partridge,  upper  part  of  breast  a  reddish-brown,  with  dark  tips  to  feathers, 
with  white  mid-ribs. 

Darks. — The  cock  black-breasted,  with  black  tail  and  wing-bar;  the 
hackle,  back,  saddle,  and  wing  bow  a  light  gray,  with  a  tint  of  black  down 
the  center  of  the  hackle  feathers.  The  hen  to  be  a  glossy  black  with  the 
exception  of  the  throat  and  breast,  which  should  be  a  rich  gray,  slightly 
laced  with  a  dark  color. 

Spangles. — The  same  in  coloring  as  the  old  English  Game.  Each 
feather  tipped  with  white ;  but  if  black  spangles,  then  black. 

Speckles. — These  are  the  same  as  the  old  English  Game  spangles. 
If  a  red  speckle,  each  feather  should  be  tipped  with  white,  and  so  if  a  black 
and  gray  speckled.  These,  when  good,  have  a  very  fine,  rich,  bright 
appearance,  a  flock  of  the  reds  and  blacks  being  as  bright  as  a  tulip  bed. 
Any  pure  white  feathers  in  this  or  the  foregoing  should  disqualify. 

Cuckoo. — A  well-known  color  of  a  light  gray  ground  transversely 
striped  with  a  darker  gray.     There  are  also  brown  and  golden  cuckoos. 


502 


The    Poultry    Book 


Barred  and  Spangles. — Cock  white,  black  spotted  on  the  breast, 
black  wing  primary  and  secondary,  wing  feathers  black  or  inner  webs 
white  outside;  hackle,  back,  saddle,  and  wing-bow  ticked  with  round 
black  spots.  Hen  white,  spotted,  or  barred  with  black  throughout;  tail 
black.     There  is,  or  was,  another  variety  of  these  in  which  the  ground 


BRIGHT    RED    AND    KLACK-SPANGLED    DORKING    HEN 


was  orange,  the  marking  the  same ;  these  were  called  the  old  Kent  barred 
spangles.     Another  variety  was  laced  instead  of  being  spotted  with  black. 

Very  Light  Grays. — These  were  nearly  white,  w4th  full  rich  black 
markings  on  the  hackles  and  the  wing  primaries  and  secondaries  blact. 
on  inner  webs;  tails  black,  in  point  of  colors  resembling  w^hat  are  now 
called   Light  Brahmas. 

There  are  many  with  moderate  colors,  as  in  the  old  English  Game. 
In  all,  the  shanks  and  feet  were  white,  combs  double  or  single,  wattles 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls       503 

red,  deaf  ear  pinkish-white  or  white-edged  pink,  as  though  (and  possibly) 
weather-stained . 

Here  is  an  excerpt  from  Varro,  translated  by  the  Reverend  J.  Owen, 
M.A.,  1800,  page  223,  giving  a  description  of  the  farmyard  cock  of  about 
two  thousand  years  ago,  with  form  and  color,  etc.  It  appears  the  red 
were  thought  the  best,  for  he  says  those  "who  wish  to  have  a  perfect 
poultry  yard  are  to  choose  the  villatic  hens  chiefly,  in  procuring  which 
they  must  select  such  as  are  the  most  prolific,  generally  with  red  plumage, 
black  pinions,  iinequal  claws,  large  heads,  erect  large  crest,  for  these  are 
better  qualified  for  breeding.  They  must  choose  the  cocks  that  are 
muscular,  with  a  red  crest,  a  short,  full-pointed  beak,  gray  or  black  eyes, 
bright-colored  red  wattles,  a  variegated  gold-colored  neck,  the  inside 
of  the  thighs  hairy,  short  legs,  long  claws,  large  tail,  close  pinions,  which 
are  also  erect,  and  crow  often."  Here  is  a  description  of  the  then  red, 
five-toed  fowl.  One  peculiarity  mentioned  is,  thighs  hairy.  This  is  an 
almost  exact  description  of  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  fowls,  and  goes  far 
to  prove  that  they  were  an  ancient  and  pure  race,  and  most  probably, 
as  before  stated,  brought  to  this  country  by  the  Romans;  for  not  only 
were  many  of  our  five-toed  southern  poultry  of  this  form  and  color, 
but  they  had  also  the  long  hairs  on  their  legs  and  thighs.  Among  my 
own  old  Kents,  many,  both  cocks  and  hens,  had  coarse  hairs  nearly 
two  inches  long  on  their  thighs,  and  some  few  an  inch  or  so  more.  On 
pointing  out  this  peculiarity  to  my  man  (a  man  of  Kent),  he  said  that  it 
was  nothing  uncommon,  and  that  years  ago  most  of  the  cocks  about 
were  more  so.  Is  not  this  some  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  five-toed 
Kent  breed  ? 

By  way  of  conclusion,  I  will  call  attention  to  the  peculiar  coloring 
of  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  five-toed  breed.  In  the  first  place,  they  varied 
in  this  exceedingly,  being  bred  chiefly  to  the  fancy  of  the  owner,  and  in 
certain  localities.  Though  some  varieties  were  much  more  scarce  than 
others,  perhaps  the  white  with  nearly  black  penciled  hackles,  wing  primaries, 
secondaries,  and  black  tail  were  the  most  uncommon.  A  near  relative 
of  mine  had  three  or  four  flocks  of  these.  Possibly  it  may  not  have  been 
noticed  by  other  fanciers  that  this  is  a  colored  form  of  the  albino,  and 
exists  in  many  animals  as  well  as  birds.  The  East  Indian  rabbit  is  white 
with  black  ears,  tail,  and  legs,  and  has  pink  eyes.  The  Siamese  cat  is 
the  same.     There  are  Guinea-pigs  so  marked,  and  the  Chillingham  cattle, 


504 


The    Poultry    Book 


besides  others.     Therefore,  being  as  it  were  a  freak  of  Nature,  it  ought 
not  to  be  difficult  to  perpetuate,  mostly  coming  true.     But  in  these  fowls 

there  is  the 
peculiarity  of  the 
white  mid-rib  or 
shaft  of  the 
feathers;  no 
matter  the 
colors,  this  i  n 
the  pure  breed 
remains  white  or 
nearly  so,  and 
with  the  richer 
tints  produces  a 
most  brilliant 
effect;  and  there 
is  another  differ- 
ence, namely, 
that  generally 
the  feathers  are 
tipped  with  black 
or  a  black  color 
o  n  almost  any 
kind  of  ground.  Thus  in  the  red  the  hens  are  black  spangled,  so 
in  the  browns,  the  grays,  light  or  dark,  and  others;  and  often 
this  is  so  in  all  shades;  but  when  the  black  tip  is  changed  to  white, 
this  then  is  the  speckled  or  white  spangled  one  of  the  many  colors 
for  which  the  old  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surreys  were  fancied.  If 
crossed  out,  as  the  silver-gray  is  an  example,  then  a  mossy  smooth 
appearance  is  often  the  result,  but  even  colors  are  the  exception  and  not 
the  rule,  and  are  not  typical  of  the  race. 

At  the  present  time  it  may  be  justly  said  that  no  one  has  a  truer 
stock  of  the  White  Dorking,  or  one  that  has  endeavored  by  all  legitimate 
means  to  uphold  the  breed  and  to  restore  it  to  its  original  purity,  than 
that  highly  respected  fancier,  O.  E.  Cresswell,  Esq.,  J. P.,  of  ]\Iorney  Cross, 
Hereford. 

Mr.  Cresswell  began  keeping  the  breed  in  1868,  with  chickens  hatched 


From  a  photograph  by  C.  Reui 


SILVER-GRAY    DORKINGS 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls     505 


from  eggs  that  he  got  from  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  then,  as  he  says,  residing  in 
Sussex  (but  later  of  Bessels  Green,  near  Sevenoaks),  well  known  by  his 
excellent  book  on  pigeons  and  his  various  articles  on  poultry;  he  was 
also  a  good  naturalist.  These  chickens  were  the  foundation  of  Mr.  Cress- 
well's  well-known  and  highl}^  successful  strain.  Of  these  he  says  in  the 
Feathered  World,  January  9,  1900:  "My  original  Sussex  birds  were, 
as  far  as  I  can  recollect,  very  pretty  and  pure  white ;  but  they  were  by  no 
means  massive  enough  nor  deep  enough  in  the  breast  to  be  first-class 
table  birds,  and  nowadays  would  stand  no  chance  in  a  show-pen.  I  have 
always  suspected  that  they  had  some  slight  taint  of  White  Game  blood, 
for  single  combs  were  common  among  their  immediate  produce,  and  the 
hens  laid  pale-pink  eggs,  as  did  many  of  their  descendants  for  several 
generations."  I  quote  this  for  more  than  one  reason;  firstly,  because  the 
old  and  original  breed  of  white  Dorkings  consists  of  strains  with  both 
rose  and  single  combs;  also  there 
were  rose  and  single  combs  among 
the  colored  varieties. 

Other  White  Dorking  fanciers 
have  contributed  largely  toward  the 
refinement  of  the  breed  besides 
Mr.  Cresswell;  but  none,  or  few, 
have  so  well  succeeded  in  returning 
to  the  old  type.  A  few  years  ago 
Mr.  Joseph  Pettipher  showed  some 
exceedingly  nice  birds  of  high  com- 
mendable form  of  character,  but  he 
does  not  seem  to  have  kept  pace  with 
Mr.  Cresswell ;  and  the  AVhite  Dorking 
Club  has  rendered  lasting  service, 
though  it  does  not  appear  to  be  aware 
of  all  the  points  and  excellences  of  the 
old  breed.  I  can  fully  realize,  and 
know  how  often  it  is  said,  that  elderly 
people  think  there  is  nothing  like  or 
equal  to  the  past,  and  that  such 
assertions  are  merely  that  and  are  not  borne  out  by  facts ;  but  in  this  case  at 
least  the  statements  can  be  well  substantiated,  for  there  is  the  drawing 


From  a  photograph  by  C.  Reid 
SILVER-GRAY  DORKING   HEN 


5o6  The    Poultry   Book 

of  my  white  cockerel  in  the  1853  edition  of  the  "  Poultry  Book,"  and  which 
gives  an  original  drawing,  with  that  of  a  pullet  made  at  the  same  time, 
and  which  in  character  and  form,  fleshiness  and  quality,  is,  I  maintain, 
unsurpassed  by  any  of  his  age  at  the  present  time.  The  cock  had  a  single 
comb,  that  being  my  preference,  as  well  as  many  others  at  the  time.  If 
I  had  preferred  a  thicker  and  more  clumsily  made  bird,  it  could  have  been 
bred  easily  from  the  same  stock  by  feeding  the  hens  on  more  forcing 
food.  This  bird  was  heavy  for  his  age — nearly  ten  months — and  with  full, 
rounded  breast;  the  deep  form,  as  to  keel,  does  not  carry  any  more  than 
the  moderate,  while  according  to  the  size  of  the  wings  and  their  frequent 
use  is  the  sternum  thickly  covered  with  pectoral  muscles.  The  bird 
weighed  about  ten  pounds  at  the  time  he  was  selected  by  the  editors  of 
the  "Poultry  Book"  as  one  typical  of  the  breed. 

Here  it  would  be  well  to  call  attention  to  a  curious  fact  that  has 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  numerous  writers  on  poultry,  especially  those 
who  call  themselves  experienced  and  practical;  namely,  that  before  the 
time  of  the  shows  all  farmyard  and  other  poultry  was  considered,  for 
table  purposes,  to  be  at  its  prime  in  its  first  year,  and  stags,  as  cocks, 
the  best  for  breeding  in  the  January  and  February  of  their  second  year. 
Early  hatched  pullets  of  the  previous  years  that  had  laid  in  the  autumn 
were  good  also,  but  none  after  the  spring  of  the  third  year  for  breeding 
stock.  It  was  always  a  young  stag  to  an  older  pullet  or  third-year  hen 
which  kept  up  the  freshness  and  vigor  of  the  strain.  Well,  this  being 
so,  when  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  held  their  first  exhibition,  all 
shown  were  yotmg  birds — fowls,  ducks,  and  geese.  The  second  show 
was  the  same,  the  poultry  men  believing  their'  birds  to  be  at  that  time  at 
their  very  best,  both  for  winning  and  selling.  And  so  it  was  in  selecting 
types  of  breeds  for  illustrating  the  "Poultry  Book";  all,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  were  birds  of  the  year.  Any  one  having  the  1853  edition 
can  easily  arrive  at  the  truth  of  this  statement  by  examining  the  shanks 
and  the  bud-like  spurs  of  the  cockerels  and  pullets.  Mr.  Sturgeon's 
cockerel  Shanghai  was  under  ten  months,  so  were  Mr.  Balance's  Malay, 
]\Ir.  Gilbert's  yellow  Shanghais,  Mr.  Sturgeon's  cinnamon  pullet.  Captain 
Hornby's  Game  and  his  colored  Dorking,  my  own  White  Dorking  cockerel, 
and  all  the  rest,  with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Sturgeon's  biiff  Shanghai  "Queen," 
which  was  in  her  second  year.  I  am  able  to  certify  such  as  a  fact,  for  I 
painted,   handled,   and   examined    them    all.      Possibly   this    has    made 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,    and    Dorking   Fowls      507 


much  confusion  of  ideas  as  to  wtiat  our  poultry  was  at  that  date.  The 
poultrymen  of  the  present,  comparing  their  old  birds  with  the  chicken 
pictures  of  the  past,  are  rather  more  than  apt  to  sit  down  in  an  elated 
state  of  self-glorification,  and  to  plume  themselves  into  the  belief  as  to 
the  variations  of  the  breed  of  to-day  being  "progress."  This  showing 
of  yoimg  birds  was  the  general  practice  for  some  time,  until  old  and  young 

classes    w  e  r  e     ^ 

formed,  and 
the  boasted 
weights  of  the 
older  began 
to  tell  seriously 
against  the 
younger,  when 
all  sorts  of 
crosses  were 
resorted  to  to 
get  size,  how- 
ever rough  in 
chara  c  t  e  r , 
and  this  was 
naively  termed 
early  matur- 
ity." So  it  is 
that  nearly  all 
the  illustra- 
tions made  of 
the  shows  at 
the    Zoological 

Society,  those  at  Birmingham,  London,  etc.,  are  portraits  of  young 
birds;  therefore  those  in  the  "Poultry  Book"  must  be  regarded  as 
such  for  comparison.  And  thus  it  is  that  such  a  number  of  "ready 
writers"  commit  somewhat  serious  blunders  in  their  description  of 
"the  past  and  present";  and  not  the  least  pretentious  of  them,  as  to 
knowledge,  are  those  who,  having  perhaps  bought  a  few  birds  or  a  stock 
or  pen  of  some  noted  winners  and  breeds,  show  and  win  with  them,  not 
their  own  raising,  and  then  claim  knowledge  that  they  really  do  not  possess, 


DORKING  AND  LANGSHAN  HEN 


5o8 


The   Poultry   Book 


though  generally  ever  ready  to  inform  and  opinionize  on  every  quality 
and  detail. 

Breeding  Old  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  Fowls 

It  has  been  urged  against  the  old  Kent  and  Sussex  five-toed  fowls, 
times  and  often,  that  they  deteriorate  in  size  and  color,  and  some  come 
with  four  toes  only.  If  true  bred,  the  latter  is  never  the  case,  as  I  know 
by  experience;  nor  do  they  deteriorate  in  size  or  vary  in  color  if  rightly 
managed,  as  they  were  on  our  farms  seventy  to  a  himdred  years  ago, 
and  probably  more. 

While  admiring  Captain  Hornby's  Dorkings  in  1852-53,  he  told  me 
that  they  bred  as  true  as  "Game"  in  color.     But  he  afterward  made  a 

contrary  state- 
1  ment  in  the 
Poultry  Press, 
and  said  that 
some  came  four- 
toed,  though 
they  were  pure 
bred.  How 
could  this  be, 
when  ''the 
silvers "  were 
got  by  crossing 
with  Lord  Hill's 
silver-  gray 
Game-fowls,  and 
these  were  inter- 
bred with  the 
darker  kinds? 
It  was  stated  by 
others  who  kept 
the  so-called 
Dorkings,  and 
beHeved  as  correct,  though  this  breed  of  fowls  was  bred  by  the 
Kent  and  Sussex  farmers  as  true  as  any  other  race  of  fowls,  and 
that    while    the    modem    fancier    mostly    failed,    not    from    the    mere 


ROSE-COMBED    WHITE    DORKINGS 


Kent,    Sussex,    Surrey,   and    Dorking    Fowls       509 

non-purity  of  the  breed,  but  from  an  absolute  want  of  knowledge  of 
the  right  way  to  obtain  success ;  and  thus,  from  such  lack  on  their  part,  to 
shelter  themselves,  they  said  it  could  not  be  done,  and  this  with  plenty 
of  flocks  of  uniform  colors  still  in  and  about  the  old  southern  homesteads. 
How  was  it  done?  Why,  on  the  same  principle  as  the  best  Game-fowls 
were  bred — "youth  to  youth."  Mr.  Edward  Hewitt,  in  the  Cottage 
Gardener,  1857,  page  223,  adverts  to  it,  when  to  the  question,  "Could  you 
favor  me  with  the  cause  why  the  chickens  I  now  breed  are  so  infinitely 
inferior  to  those  I  obtained  a  year  or  two  back  from  the  same  old  birds?" 
he  answers,  "I  am  confirmed  in  this  opinion,  by  oft-repeated  trials, 
that  the  gradual  decline  of  individual  constitution  in  the  size  of  such 
poultry  tends  incredibly  to  produce  such  results;  that  while  the  most 
uncared-for  fold-yards  of  our  agriculturists  are  free  from  such  calamity, 
the  infinitely  more  highly  esteemed  flocks  of  our  amateurs,  who  let  no 
expense  deter  them  from  adopting  every  available  advantage,  are  constantly 
the  subject  of  this  most  vexatious  discomfiture. "  Here  I  must  join  issue 
with  Mr.  Hewitt  when  he  says  "the  most  imcared-for  fold-yards  of  our 
agriculturists."  If  this  were  so,  the  result  would  not  be  what  he  claims 
for  it.  The  farm  poultry  were  cared  for  and  bred  on  certain  principles, 
and  they  the  most  ancient — that  is,  the  selection  of  the  largest  and  best. 
After  noting  "natural  selection,"  etc.,  he  further  says:  "We  continually 
find  instances  in  our  fold-yards  where  a  cock  that  has  maintained  inviolate 
his  supremacy  one  full  season  has  the  next  spring  been  subjected  to 
maltreatment  and  oppression  from  a  stronger  and  a  younger  bird,  his 
own  former  victim;  thus  treated,  he  becomes  'a  changed  bird,'  literally 
'henpecked.'"  This  would  be  so,  doubtless;  but  it  was  not  the  practice 
to  keep  such  cocks  until  the  third  year,  but  to  rear  the  largest,  strongest, 
the  most  vigorous  "stags"  or  second-year  cocks,  and  these  were  changed 
every  year;  and  indeed  to  such  an  extent  was  the  custom  carried  that  it 
became  proverbial — 

"Never  keep  a  cock  nor  a  servant  more  than  a  year."   * 

And  the  hens  bred  from  were  in  their  third  year,  seldom  the  second  year 
(or  pullet  hens,  as  they  were  called),  unless  they  were  unusually  large, 
"roomy,"  and  forward;  and  all  were  chosen  for  bulk,  health,  and  quality, 
especially  so  when  the  stock  was  "inbred"  or  a  "cockerel  or  two"  was 

*  A  variant  is,  "A  cock  and  a  servant  are  good  but  a  year." 


5IO  The    Poultry    Book 

got  in  exchange  from  neighboring  farmsteads.  Thus  it  was  that  the 
poultry  of  certain  farms  and  locations  became  of  an  even  coloring  and 
character,  and,  as  is  admitted  by  ]\Ir.  Hewitt,  the  method  was  successful, 
while  that  of  the  fancier  was  a  failure.  But  further,  from  his  remarks: 
"  The  truth  can  be  soon  told.  Amateurs  are  directly  prone  to  two  equally 
ill-advised  practices.  First,  if  a  male  bird  has  been  able  to  gain  high 
position  at  poultry  shows,  combined  perchance  with  the  production  of 
extraordinary  chickens,  he  is  retained  long  beyond  the  timeitw^as  advisable 
to  keep  him  as  'a  stock  bird.'  The  other  error  is  equally  mischievous. 
From  possessing  some  much-desired  peculiarity  of  feathering,  a  cockerel 
is  most  unwisely  selected,  puny,  and  without  constitution.  ...  I 
am  confident  when  any  race  of  poultry  has  arrived  at  all  the  required 
features  fancy  dictates  as  the  uncompromising  rule  of  absolute  perfection" 
(and  they  certainly  are  acquired  by  long-continued  attention  to  careful 
mating  of  the  parent  birds),  "progress  itself  is  not  more  unattainable 
than  the  perpetuity  in  all  respects  of  the  'points'  so  long  coveted.  They 
must,  in  this  case,  be  crossed  with  strange  blood,  or  they  will  infallibly 
breed  out  altogether."  AVith  this  I  disagree,  as  I  have  known  the  same 
strain  to  be  not  only  maintained  in  perfect  health  and  size  by  proper 
selection  and  judicious  management,  but  have  also  known  the  work  of 
many  years  destroyed  by  the  crossing-out  with  "strange  blood" — it  has 
generally  proved  to  have  the  most  disastrous  effects,  and  was  seldom 
or  ever  resorted  to  by  the  "henwife"  of  the  best  poultry  on  the  Kent, 
Sussex,  and  Surrey  farms;  and  yet,  as  Mr.  Hewitt  has  admitted,  "they" 
(the  farmers)  bred  successfully.  But  further,  he  says:  "A  friend  of 
mine  purchased  some  unexceptionable  gray  Dorkings.  For  three  years 
the  produce  was  equally  large  with  the  parent  birds,  and  true  likewise 
to  a  feather  as  to  general  coloring."  (This  might  be  expected  if  the 
parents  were  of  the  right  stock,  but  would  probably  be  the  limit  as  to 
age  for  breeding  strong,  vigorous  birds,  and  the  sequel  proves  this,  as  it 
has  done  in  very  many  cases  before  and  since  then.)  "The  chickens  the 
next  two  years  '  sported  all  colors  '  and  in  size  degenerated  exceedingly, 
no  additional  brood  stock  having  been  obtained  in  the  interim."  (Nor 
would  there  have  been  need  had  the  old  southern  plan  of  breeding  a  fresh 
young  cock  (stag)  been  resorted  to;  and  these  fanciers  were  those  that 
published  the  erroneous  statements  that  the  Dorkings  could  not  be  bred 
true,   when  it  was  their  own  ignorance  of  the  natural  way  and  proper 


Kent,   Sussex,   Surrey,  and   Dorking   Fowls      511 


■3>  ■  -    »^-.  . 


OLD   KENT    WHITE   GROUP 


methods  that  brought  about  the  deterioration.)  But  further  of  Mr. 
Hewitt:  "To  the  old  hens,  a  son  of  one,  bred  two  years  previously,  was 
repurchased  and  turned  down  in  lieu  of  his  own  male  parent;  every 
chicken  produced  to  him  was  equally  good  in  color,  as  they  had  formerly 
been  in  the  youthful  days  of  his  sire,  but  did  not  attain  so  good  a  size." 
Here  it  should  be  observed  that  there  was  no  change  of  blood,  but  close 
"inbreeding";  and  yet  the  value  of  youth  and  vigor  was  demonstrated 
by  the  fact  of  the  cock  giving  color,  as  it  is  said  to  do,  while  the  hens 
being  old  the  size  was  not  again  increased;  had  they  been  sisters  of  his 
own  age  the  result  would  most  likely  have  been  entirely  satisfactory. 
But  further,  "At  four  years  old  this  latter  bird  produced  chickens  of 
'all  colors,'  and  was  this   spring   removed   to   make  way  for  a  yoimger 


512  The    Poultry   Book 

one,  a  cockerel  of  last  year.  This  last  bird's  chickens,  so  far  as  can  yet 
be  seen,  are  true  silver-grays  without  any  spangling  in  the  breast,  or  indeed 
any  deterioration  of  color."  He  adds,  "  To  me  I  admit  it  is  strange, 
though  true,  that  such  want  of  general  uniformity  of  plumage  should 
accrue  simply  from  age  in  the  male  bird ;  but  of  this  I  am  equally  aware, 
that  an  excessively  old  cock  Sebright  Bantam  invariably  begets  chickens 
with  most  imperfect  'lacings,'  though  himself  strongly  marked  on  his 
own  plumage,  while  no  such  imperfection  is  general  from  long  life  on 
the  hen's  side.  From  what  I  have  advanced,  I  think  it  is  pretty  apparent 
that  the  most  vigorous  cockerels  should  always  be  the  selected  ones  for 
'breeding,'  even  where  it  is  still  considered  desirable  to  retain  an  especial 
good  old  cock  simply  for  exhibition;  it  w411  prevent  many  troubles."  I 
have  quoted  Mr.  Hewitt  because  he  was  recognized  at  the  time  (1857)  as 
an  old,  true,  and  ardent  poultry  fancier,  and  one  whose  opinion  was  valued ; 
and  yet,  probably,  like  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  fanciers  of  the  period,  he 
was  unacquainted  with  the  natural  forces  always  present,  not  only  in  the 
breeding  of  poultry,  but  of  other  domestic  animals,  that  was  a  traditional 
knowledge  of  the  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey  farmers  for  many  generations. 


SOME   SCOTCH   FOWLS* 

The  true  friend  is  to  be  more  esteemed  than  kinsfolk." — Cicero. 


ANIEL,  in  his  "Rural  Sports,"  1813,  under  the  heading  of 
Roxburghshire,  writes:  "Poultry,  in  this  district,  are 
reared  in  vast  quantities,  and  several  cartloads  of  the 
eggs  of  dunghill  fowls  are  annually  collected  by  egglers,  who 
sell  them  in  Berwick  for  the  London  market.  A  certain 
practice  to  make  hens  lay  plenty  of  eggs  is  to  feed  them  frequently  with 
boiled  potatoes  and  a  small  portion  of  oatmeal,  a  little  heated ;  in  winter, 
to  forward  the  same  purpose,  the  hens  are  kept  in  as  dry  and  warm  a 
place  in  the  house  as  possible ;  in  cottages,  they  generally,  during  the  night, 
sit  at  no  great  distance  from  the  fireplace ;  the  consequence  is  that  farmers 
whose  poultry  are  in  the  night-time  confined  in  places  without  a  fire 
obtain  no  eggs;  the  poor  people  have  them  in  abundance." 

As  far  back  as  1862-64  I  spent  much  time  in  Dumfriesshire,  grouse- 
shooting,  etc.,  and  can  therefore  bear  testimony  that  about  Moffat  and 
on  the  hills  the  cotters  still  acted  on  the  same  plan.  In  many  cases  the 
byre  for  the  cow  was  also  a  part  of  "the  hoose,"  and  the  fowls  would 
come  in  and  sit  near  the  fire,  or  walk  about  the  table  at  the  meal  times ; 
even  a  hen  and  chickens  found  a  warm  comer  for  the  night,  undisturbed. 
The  eggs  were  collected  and  brought  in  by  barelegged  lads  or  lasses, 
who  often  came  long  distances  ow're  the  hills,  carrying  a  basket  of  eggs 
and — their  shoes. 

But  few  old  birds  were  kept  at  the  shanties,  seldom  more  than  five 
or  six  hens  and  a  cock,  and  in  the  early  morning  these  would  roam  away 
some  distance,  mostly  to  the  damper  or  moist  part  of  the  hills,  in  search 
of  insects,  etc.,  but  they  were  sure  to  be  back  at  feeding  time,  which  was 
about  10  A.M.,  as  a  shepherd  told  me  was  the  right  time,  as  the  grouse  fed 
then  or  a  little  before;  and,  said  he,  "Nature  is  Nature,  and  if  ye'll  do 
weel  ye   mon   abide  by  Nature.     Besides,"  he  added,  "they  been   at  it 

*  This  chapter  is  substantially  as  it  was  printed    in   the    English   edition. — Editor, 

513 


514  The    Poultry    Book 

all  the  mom,  and  noo  they'll  sleep  a'  the  sun  awheel,"  and  then  in  a  lower 
tone,  "like  thee  grous." 

The  fowls  then  kept  "there  and  thereabouts"  were  quite  the  old 
sort — square,  plump,  short  in  leg  and  thigh,  with  medium  length  of  shank, 
the  heads  rather  large  for  the  size  of  the  body,  with  upright  combs  on  the 
cock  and  a  drooping  one  on  the  hens;  the  eyes  were  full  and  intelligent 
and  dark  or  red ;  the  ear-lobes  white  to  a  light  pink,  which  last  was,  perhaps, 
but  a  w^eather  tint ;  the  shanks  and  beak  were  white ;  the  carriage  somewhat 
upright;  large  tails,  full-feathered,  and  mostly  of  a  dark  gray  or  mottled 
black  and  white,  seldom  with  red,  but  more  often  with  straw  color;  the 
bodies  of  the  hens  were  brown,  or  a  gray  brown  with  dark  hackles,  and  the 
cocks  had  mottled  gray  and  black  breasts.  The  cuckoo  grays,  one  old 
man  told  me,  were  called  about  there  (out  by  St.  Mary's  Loch)  Shepherd's 
Plaids;  this,  possibly,  was  mere  "pleasantry,"  with  a  leaning  toward  the 
truth.  All  laid  snow-white  eggs  of  a  somewhat  oval  form  and  good  in 
flavor.  As  table  fowls  they  were  excellent,  being  extremely  fleshy, 
and  this  very  white  and  sapid,  not  being  used  to  much  grain  food ;  when 
cooped  or  well  fed  they  fattened  quickly,  and  were  then  delicious  eating. 
The  same  breed  was  kept  at  the  "big  hoos"  where  I  was  staying;  and 
the  fowls  of  Craiggieburn  were  for  the  table  of  the  host;  these  were  the 
old,  old  breed,  and  none  else  were  kept  about  there  at  the  time  of  my 
visit.  Though  not  of  the  same  color  generally,  they  much  resembled  in 
form,  but  somewhat  shorter  in  the  body,  the  breed  that  is  now  to  the 
front  and  called 

The  Scotch  Grays 

This  is  a  very  old  breed,  and,  like  the  ordinary  old  Scotch  fowl  kept 
by  farmers,  keepers,  and  cotters,  is  particularly  hardy.  Though  it  is 
said  to  be  distinct,  it  has  always  given  me  the  impression  that  its  origin 
lies  almost,  if  not  entirely,  with  the  ancient  dunghill  breed  of  the  country, 
with  the  exception  that  the  true  old  Scotch  Gray  was  a  trifle  more  Gamey 
and  upright  in  its  carriage ;  but  its  habits  were  precisely  the  same  as  those 
I  noted  in  Dumfriesshire  round  about  Moffat,  Loch  of  the  Lowes,  St. 
Mary's  Loch  and  the  adjacent  hills,  villages,  and  cotters'  homes.  Although 
there  were  grays  among  these,  yet  they  were  not  looked  on  as  anything 
beyond  "the  ordinary,"  nor  were  they  sought  for  more  than  other  colors. 
Still,  in  some  districts,  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  breed  for  form,  flesh, 


^1 


WHITE    DORKING    PRIZE    HEN 


Some   Scotch    Fowls  517 

and  color;  and  over  forty  years  ago,  when  at  Kelso,  I  was  shown  some 
examples  that  showed  not  only  careful  breeding,  but  also  an  evenness 
in  general  appearance  and  utility  that  was  highly  favorable,  and  went 
far  to  prove  that  they  were  a  good  and  true  strain  of  an  ancient  and  original 
type  of  fowl. 

I  give  the  standard  as  proposed  by  the  Scotch  Gray  Club,  1885-86, 
with  some  of  which  it  will  be  seen  I  am  not  in  full  accord,  nor  do  I  think 
that  the  bird  of  to-day  possesses  the  numerous  high  qualities  of  that  of 
forty  to  fifty  years  since,  having,  as  it  has,  a  mixture  of  foreign  blood  not 
observable  in  the  old  Scotch  farm  and  cotters'  breed. 

General  Characteristics 
Cock 

Comb. — Single,  medium  size,  fine  in  texture,  perfectly  straight  and 
upright  and  with  well-defined  serrations,  bright  red  in  color,  free  of  side 
sprigs  and  come  well  down  on  the  head  behind. 

Beak. — Strong,  well  curved,  white  in  color,  or  white  streaked  with 
black. 

Head. — Neat,  long,  and  fine. 

Eye. — Large,  bright,  and  clear. 

Ear-lobe. — Medium  size,  fine  in  texture,  and  bright  red  in  color.  (I 
say  "white"  emphatically.) 

Wattle. — Aledium  length,  bright  red,  well  rounded  on  lower  edge. 

Neck. — Medium  length,  finely  tapered,  well  arched,  and  having  hackle 
flowing  down  on  shoulders  and  back. 

Breast. — Broad,  deep,  and  full,  and  carried  well  forward  and  upward. 

Body.— Medinm  length,  compactly  built,  and  full  of  substance. 

Wings. — Medium  size,  carried  well  up,  distinctly  barred  bow  and  tip, 
covered  by  hackle  and  saddle  feathers. 

Tail. — Medium  size,  carried  well  up  and  receding  from  body — not 
squirrel — with  flowing  sickles  and  secondaries  nicely  and  evenly  barred. 

Thighs. — Long,  straight,  wide  apart  and  strong;  not  quite  so  promi- 
nent as  in  Game. 

Legs. — Strong  and  rather  long,  white  in  color,  or  white  mottled  with 
black;  not  sooty. 

Feet. — Four-toed,  straight,  and  strong;  same  color  as  legs;  toes 
Straight  and  well  spread  out. 


5i8  The    Poultry    Book 

Size. — The  larger  the  better  if  combined  with  quaHty. 

Shape. — Neither  Dorking  nor  Game,  but  a  blend  of  both — i.e.,  having 
features  allied  to  both. 

Carriage  and  Appearance. — Erect,  lively,  active,  bold,  and  graceful. 

Pliunage. — Cuckoo-feathered,  grand  color  of  body;  thigh  and  wing 
feathers  should  be  bluish- white,  w^hile  that  of  hackle,  saddle,  and  tail 
feathers  may  vary  from  bluish-white  to  light  gray.  The  color  of  the 
barring  must  be  glossy  black  with  a  metallic  luster.  The  barring  in  body, 
thigh,  and  wing  feathers  should  be  straight  across,  while  that  on  hackle, 
saddle,  and  tail  may  be  slightly  angled  or  V-shaped,  and  the  alternating 
bands  of  black  and  white  should  be  equal  in  width  and  proportioned  to 
size  of  the  feather.  The  bird  should  read  throughout — i.e.,  be  the  same 
shade  from  head  to  tail,  and  be  free  from  red,  black,  white  or  yellow 
feathers;  and  the  hackle,  saddle,  and  tail  should  be  distinctly  and  evenly 
barred,  while  the  markings  all  over  should  be  rather  small,  even,  distinct, 
and  sharply  defined. 

Hen 

Comb. — Medium  size,  evenly  serrated,  either  erect  or  falling  slight!}^ 
over. 

Beak,  Head,  Eye,  Ear-lobe,  and  Wattle. — Same  as  cock. 

Neck. — Rather  long;  hackle  distinctly  marked  and  same  shade  as 
body. 

Breast,  Body,  and  Wings. — Same  as  cock. 

Tail. — Medium  size,  well  marked,  receding  from  body;  not  squirrel. 

Thighs. — Long,  strong,  and  well  shown. 

Legs. — Rather  long,  pinky  white  or  slightly  mottled ;  not  sooty. 

Eeet,  Size,  Shape,  Carriage,  and  Appearance. — Same  as  cock. 

Plumage. — Same  as  cock,  but  markings  rather  larger,  even,  and 
distinct,  producing  an  appearance  like  a  shepherd's  tartan. 

Points  in  Scotcli  Grays 
Size,  5  ;  comb  and  head,  3  ;  tail,  3  ;  color  of  plumage,  5  ;  symmetry,  5  ; 
condition,  4.     Total,  25  points. 

Value  of  Defects  in  Judging  Scotch  Grays 
Standard  of  Perfection.^A  perfect  bird  in  shape,  style,  color,  condi- 
tion, etc.,  to  count  25  points. 


Some    Scotch    Fowls  519 

Defects  to  he  Deducted. — Bad  comb  and  head,  3  ;  bad  shape  and  carriage 
of  tail,  3  ;  want  of  size,  5  ;  want  of  symmetry,  5  ;  want  of  condition,  4 ;  faults 
of  plumage,  5.     Total,  25  points. 

Disqualifications 

Fraudulent  dyeing  and  trimming,  any  bodily  deformity,  and  distinct 
characteristic  of  any  other  breed  not  applicable  to  the  Scotch  Gray. 

Scotch  Bakies  or  Dumpies — Jumpers 

Although  aware  of  the  existence  of  this  breed  in  Scotland,  I  had  never 
seen  any  until  visiting  Mr.  John  Fairlie,  of  Chevely  Park,  near  Newmarket, 
in  1852-53.  The  flock  consisted  of  some  twenty-five  or  thirty,  and  all  bore 
the  stamp  of  being  a  separate  and  distinct  breed  from  any  other  European 
fowls.  In  many  ways  they  were  particularly  interesting,  much  so  in 
their  general  habit  and  walk,  which  was  sometimes  diverted  into  a  jump 
or  hop ;  though  not  a  series  of  hops  like  the  progression  of  the  sparrow,  but 
simply  one  or  two  occasionally,  then  a  short  w^alk,  and  again  possibly 
more  jumps,  according  to  any  impulse  or  need  they  had  for  moving.  After 
much  careful  observation  and  study  of  the  cocks,  hens,  and  some  few 
chickens,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  most  likely  a  variant 
of  the  old  English  short-shanked  fowl  named  "Grigs,"  mentioned  by  Rae 
in  his  edition  of  "  AVilloughby,"  1678,  and  that  being  so  short  limbed  they 
were  probably  found  unsuitable  for  our  Enghsh  homesteads,  and  had  thus 
become  scarce.  Although  those  of  Mr.  Fairlie  came  from  Scotland,  I  could 
not  learn  of  any  others  being  there ;  and  therefore  there  was  no  conclusive 
proof  that  they  were  by  any  means  entirely  a  Scotch  breed.  Nor  could 
this  be  considered  at  all  likely,  when  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  old 
English  "  Grigs"  ;  though,  at  the  same  time,  this  being  a  mere  surmise,  it  is 
not  needful  to  suggest  any  alteration  of  the  name  by  which  they  are  known, 
or  that  there  should  be  any  prefix  or  addition  to  it,  for  though  the  resem- 
blance by  description  is  great,  they  may  not  be  identical. 

Besides  making  several  pencil  studies,  I  painted  a  cock  and  two  hens 
for  Mr.  Fairlie.  The  birds  of  the  whole  flock  throughout  were  very  similar, 
the  difference  of  form  and  color  being  very  sHght.  This  evenness  of 
general  character  and  appearance  fully  impressed  me  as  demonstrating 
the  pureness  and  possible  antiquity  of  the  breed.  All  were  particularly 
healthy  and  strong  on  the  wing,  and  if  frightened  they,  being  very  timid, 


520 


The    Poultry    Book 


would  fly  very  rapidly  some  distance.  Curiously,  though  short  in  their 
thighs,  legs,  and  shanks,  they  were  rather  long  in  the  body,  or  appeared  to 
be  so,  yet  were  full  and  plump-breasted ;  the  feathering,  though  somewhat 
long,  was  close  and  compact,  the  tails  being  large  and  well  spread,  the 
sickle  feathers  broad,  curved,  and  lengthy,  as  were  the  large  tail  coverts; 
the  neck  hackle  or  plume  and  the  saddle  hackles  were  full  and  long.  In 
color  they  were  red  and  black,  or  yellow,  gray  and  black,  splashed  with 
white,  in  some  instances  quite  "gayly"  so.  The  head  was  broad  at  the 
back  and  tapering  toward  the  front ;  the  comb  medium  size,  single,  upright, 
and  deeply  serrated  or  spiked ;  the  wattles  rather  large,  long,  and  pendulous; 


CUCKOO    BAKIES,    OR   JUMPERS 
Owned  by  Mr.  Weir 


Some   Scotch    Fowls  521 

ear-lobes  full  and  pinkish  white  or  white ;  eyes  light  reddish-orange,  though 
in  some  cases  inclining  to  pearl  or  daw  color;  the  crow  of  the  cocks 
resembled  that  of  the  Game-fowl;  the  eggs  were  somewhat  oval  in  shape 
and  white;  the  hens  were  fairly  good  layers.  The  weight  of  the  cocks  was 
between  seven  and  eight  poimds ;  the  hens,  five  and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half 
poimds,  or  even  more.  The  beak,  shank,  and  feet  were  stout  and  strong ; 
the  shanks  very  short  and  all  of  a  flesh- white ;  toe-nails  white.  The  hens 
w^re  good  sitters  and  mothers ;  the  chickens  when  very  young  were  tender 
to  rear,  being  susceptible  to  colds  from  damp ;  even  when  five  or  six  weeks 
old  a  run  in  long  grass  was  sometimes  fatal. 

As  a  breed  they  were  particularly  active,  being  fond  of  perching  on 
trees,  flying  up  with  great  agility.  As  table  fowls  they  were  said  to  be 
excellent,  while  for  household  pets  their  quaint  odd  appearance  gave  an 
attractiveness  that  was  pleasurable. 

The  Dumbartonshire  Fowl 

The  following  is  a  peculiarly  interesting  excerpt,  taken  from  Daniels's 
"Rural  Sports,"  1813,  Vol.  III.     Of  Dumbarton  it  says: 

' '  This  county  produces  a  variety  of  the  dunghill  fowl  which  has  some- 
times been  found  in  the  mosses  and  domesticated  by  taking  the  eggs  from 
the  wild  birds  and  hatching  and  rearing  them  by  a  common  hen.  This 
variety  is  called  the  '  heath  fowl, '  and  is  but  rarely  found  either  here  or  in 
the  northern  counties  of  Scotland.  It  is  not  so  large  as  the  common  sort, 
but  the  eggs  for  the  most  part  are  of  the  size  of  the  duck's,  and  are  very 
fine.  The  hen  continues  to  produce  eggs  for  a  long  time,  and  seldom 
inclines  to  hatch.  When  the  eggs  are  hatched  by  another  hen,  care  must 
be  taken  to  burst  the  shell  after  it  is  chipped,  it  being  frequently  so  hard 
that  the  young  bird  cannot  disengage  itself.  The  color  of  the  chick 
very  much  resembles  that  of  a  partridge,  but  in  fowls  come  to  maturity 
it  is  commonly  red  or  brown,  mixed  with  spots  of  white  or  gray.  Both 
male  and  female  are  round-crested,  and  often  the  tufts  are  so  large  as  to 
hang  over  the  eyes,  and  must  frequently  be  clipped.  They  are  smooth- 
legged,  and  the  length  of  the  leg  is  in  proportion  to  the  body.  The  heels 
of  the  cock  are  short,  and  not  well  adapted  for  fighting;  yet  both  sexes 
fight  keenly  with  the  bill,  which  is  thick,  short,  and  crooked.  Although 
fully  tamed,  yet  they  are  fond  of  swamps  and  woods,  and  extremely 
greedy  of  worms  and  other  reptiles,  in  quest  of  which  they  wander  to  a 


522 


The    Poultry   Book 


considerable  distance.  They  sometimes  leave  the  dunghill  fowls  and, 
for  the  sake  of  insects,  follow  any  plow  that  is  going  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. This  breed  is  more  easily  supported  than  the  common,  and  their 
eggs  bring  nearly  double  the  price  of  those  of  ordinary  fowls." 

As  this  was  written  as  far  back  as  i8 12-13,  it  seems  curious  that  in 
these  times,  when  every  variety  of  fowl,  worthy  or  unworthy  of  notice,  is 
being  hunted  up  and  lauded,  rightly  or  wrongly,  that  this,  which  appears 
to  have  its  own,  if  peculiar,  merits,  is  entirely  lost,  or  at  least  is  not  con- 
sidered worthy  of  notice ;  yet,  accordmg  to  description,  it  appears  to  pos- 
sess much  that  should  render  it  highly  acceptable  to  the  general  fancier 
or  the  one  seeking  a  utility  fowl  of  some  excellence. 


M'^OhKN    ROSE-COMB    WHITE    DORKING   COCKEREL 
A  prize-\vinner 


a 


WHITE    COCHINS    IN    OPEN    RANGE 
Bred  anil  owned  by  J.  D.  Nevius,  New  Jersey 


THE    SHANGHAI    OR   COCHIN    FOWL 
Thomas  F.  McGrew,  New  York 


Allow  not  Nature  more  than  Nature  needs." — King  Lear. 

0  domestic  animal  or  bird  has  created  more  general  enthu- 
siasm than  did  the  Shanghai,*  now  called  Cochin,  fowl. 
From  the  hour  of  its  first  coming  into  both  England  and 
America  it  has  been  prime  favorite  with  the  expert 
fancier,  amateur,  and  the  general  public  ahke.  No 
aspirant  for  stage  honors  was  ever  better  presented  than  were  the 
imaginary  qualities  of  this  wonderful  breed  of  fowls.  It  was  not  a  question 
of  laying  one  egg  per  day — any  fowl  should  do  as  well  as  this — but  the 
new-found  breed,  the  Shanghai,  could  and  would  produce  at  least  calcula- 
tions two  or  three  per  day.  These  same  false  declarations  were  heralded 
in  this  country  as  well  as  in  England.  I\Iany  imagined  them  as  large  as 
the  ostrich  or  nearly  so. 

In  1879  the  writer  began  to  gather  information  for  a  work  on  Cochin 
fowls.     The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  Joseph  AVallace,  who  spent  several 

*  It  will  be  ncticed  that  in  speaking  of  the  Coehin  fowl  Mr.  Weir  calls  them  Shanghais. 
Those  who  are  interested  in  the  full  history  of  Shanghais,  Chittagongs,  and  Brahma  Pootra 
fowls  will  find  them  more  fully  treated  in  the  English  edition  of  this  work.— Editor. 

523 


524  The   Poultry   Book 

years  in  China  and  India.  Being  a  thorough  poultryman,  he  quite  well 
understood  his  subject.  I  quote  him  just  as  he  wrote  over  twenty  years 
ago:  "With  the  exception  of  the  domesticated  native  Game  of  India, 
the  Cochin  and  its  relatives,  Brahmas,  Chittagongs,  Javas,  etc.,  are  perhaps 
the  oldest  distinct  race  of  fowls.  This  may  appear  strange  and  perhaps 
doubtful  at  first  thought,  far-fetched,  and  wholly  imsupported  by  compe- 
tent authority  on  Chinese  galliniculture,  owing  to  our  limited  knowledge 
of  the  great  Chinese  empire  and  surrounding  countries.  But  we  antici- 
pated this  and  have  accumulative  proofs  from  Chinese  records,  missionaries, 
naturalists,  and  educated  Chinese  fanciers  to  support  our  theory." 

The  Reverend  Jean  Baptiste  Proulx,  a  distinguished  linguist  and 
naturalist  of  Louvain,  Belgium,  who  traveled  through  China  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  present  century  and  spent  many  years  instructing  the 
natives  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  says:  "I  was  astonished,  when  I  first 
came  here,  at  the  slow  and  patient  industry  of  the  people  and  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  their  domestic  fowls.  Not  but  there  are  small  fowls  in 
China,  like  as  in  Europe,  but  size  is  a  behest,  a  specific  religious  injunction. 
In  no  other  quarter  of  the  globe  is  found  so  large  and  distinct  a  race  of 
domestic  fowls.  This  land  is  really  the  paradise  of  gallinaceous  birds.  The 
giant  race  one  meets  with  everywhere  have  outgrown  the  records  of 
time." 

Father  Tachard  (or  Sicard),  the  noted  missionary  and  scientist, 
300  years  ago  penetrated  into  Cochin-China  and  Tonquin.  In  addition 
to  his  studies,  he  collected  a  large  fund  of  information  regarding 
the  history,  ethnology,  zoology,  and  industries  of  the  country.  His 
observations  of  the  domestic  fowls  of  Cochin-China  and  Tonquin  at  that 
early  day  are  much  the  same  as  observed  by  recent  travelers.  "From 
what  I  have  learned,"  says  he,  "in  many  parts  of  the  country  the  domestic 
fowls  receive  the  greatest  care  and  solicitude,  this  especially  so  among 
the  Brahmo-Buddhists  and  the  followers  of  Khoung-foo-tsee  and  Leo-tsee, 
who  worship  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors  and  believe  in  the  immortality 
of  all  forms  of  life.  They  will  not  suffer  a  fowl  to  be  killed  or  injured  in 
their  presence,  and  it  is  enjoined  on  them  by  their  religion  to  propagate, 
increase  their  size,  and  care  for  them  in  sickness  and  health,  as  they  are 
the  living,  moving  temples  wherein  the  spirits  of  their  departed  ancestors 
and  relatives  dwell,  by  whose  wings  they  are  wafted  to  eternal  life  after 
a  certain  probationary  period  on  earth." 


The   Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl 


525 


r 

1 

- 

^^"^a 

^^^^v 

~^ 

^g^  ^^  ^ 

\ 

'^:  :>•.. 

/     '       .   ■  , 

^ 

f^^ 

\ 


This  belief  is  supposed  to  account  for  the  number  and  size  of  the 
domestic  fowls  of  China  and  parts  of  India,  and  the  encouragement  to 
propagation  is  intensified  by  the  hope  of  a  departed  relative  taking  up 
his  abode  in  a  fowl  under  the  care  and  guardianship  of  one  of  his  kin. 
The  eggs  from  each  fowl  may  be  sold  or  bartered  for  other  articles,  and 
those  who  hold  different  religious  views  breed  them  for  their  own  use  and 
for  sale.  They 
also  constitute  the 
chief  meat  food 
for  those  who  can 
afford  to  use  them, 
so  this  giant  race 
has  a  large  geo- 
graphical area. 

The  religion, 
tradition,  and 
superstition  of 
some  of  the  primi- 
tive races  of  China 
show  that  domestic 
fowls  were  coeval 
with  their  religion 
and  institutions. 
In  support  of  our 
theory  of  antiquity 
and  distinctness 
of  the  Cochin  race, 
we  will  quote  from 

a  learned  Chinese  naturalist  and  writer :  ' '  The  Chinese  entertain  odd 
notions  regarding  the  cultivation  of  animals  and  plants.  Anything 
peculiarly  unique,  contorted,  or  abnormal  they  try  to  develop  and  evolve, 
dwarf  or  enlarge,  to  excite  curiosity  and  turn  a  ready  penny.  Young 
chickens,  goslings,  and  cormorants  are  often  bound  to  young  bamboo 
stems.  The  plant  grows  so  rapidly  that  they  are  stretched  out  of  all 
due  proportions." 

In  the  populous  empire  of  China  habits   of  industry  are  necessarily 
enforced.       Breeding    fowls   and   domesticating   wild   birds   are   favorite 


v.? 


^ 


COCHIN    PULLET 


526 


The    Poultry   Book 


pursuits  among  the  people.  Local  governments  aid  and  encourage  industry, 
as  the  taxes  are  paid  in  produce  of  the  land,  whether  it  be  in  rice,  fowl,  or 
goats.  Artificial  incubation  is  thoroughly  mastered  by  a  class  of  pro- 
fessionals who  travel  from  one  leading  part  to  another  plying  their  vocation 
on  flat  boats,  but  where  the  pursuit  is  carried  on  largely  and  also  naturally 
is  in  the  nii-aits,  or  retreats,  corresponding  to  the  monasteries  of  Christian 
lands.  They  are  invariably  long  brick  buildings  one  story  in  height, 
simple  and  solemn  in  architecture.  The  grounds  for  the  cultivation  of 
flowers  and  wholesome  food  are  ample.  Around  the  buildings  are  windowless 
walls  symbolic  of  the  busy  life  forever  shut  out  from  view.  In  the  grounds 
and  surrounding  lands  poultry  enjoy  undisturbed  freedom.  They  are 
allowed  to  make  their  nests  under  gnarled  trees  and  beneath  creeping 
vines.  The  finest  specimens  of  the  Chinese  race  of  fowls  are  bred  in  these 
places,  and  there  is  an  attempt  at  breeding  them  to  an  ideal  standard. 
There  are  more  than  ii,ooo  mi-aus  in  the  Celestial  Empire,  exclusive 
of  caravansaries,  lambsories,  and  distinctly  religious  establishments.     The 

number  of   inmates  varies; 
r  the   highest  is  that  of   Tal 

Sin,  with  a  roll-call  of  600, 
and  the  lowest  is  that  of 
Lanchow,  with  only  two 
brothers.  The  imperial 
census  shows  they  aggre- 
gate 200,000  men  who 
have  renoimced  the  world 
forever,  and  have  taken 
up  the  pursuit  of  poultry 
and  vegetable  cultivation. 
In  many  of  these 
retreats  thousands  o f 
specimens  of  Buff 
and  Partridge  China 
(Cochin)  fowls  are  annually 
raised,  and  in  other  places 
the  colors  are  mixed.  The 
kinkee  (gold  flower)  colored  birds  are  the  most  esteemed,  both  as 
regards  antiquity  and  purity.     After  supplying  the  wants  of  the  brother- 


Drawn  from  life  by  L.  P.  Oraha 
FIRST-PRIZE      BUFF      COCHIN      PULLET 
Oakland  Farm.  Massachusetts.     New  York  Show,  1895 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl  527 

hood  and  distressed  travelers,  the  others  are  sold  for  the  gupport  of  the 
retreats.  Hoang-ho  is  the  oldest  mi-aus,  and  its  records  show  that  this 
same  race  of    fowls  was  cultivated  by  the  brotherhood  1,500  years  ago. 

Biiff  and  Partridge  Cochins  are  indigenous  to  the  temperate  and 
more  southerly  portions  of  the  empire.  This  is  corroborated  by  natural- 
ists and  travelers.  Mr.  Gabb,  the  well-known  English  naturalist,  says: 
"According  to  my  view,  a  black  or  white  Cochin  is  an  improbability,  if 
not  an  impossibility,  as  a  natural  product  of  a  tropical  or  subtropical 
region.  The  natural  color  of  the  feathers  of  the  poultry  in  the  zone  of 
Cochin-China  would  be  buff  or  yellow,  or  some  of  the  varieties  of  these 
colors,  but  never  black  or  white,  except  by  accidental  variation." 

George  E.  Haight,  an  American  well  known  to  the  fanciers  of  this 
country,  visited  China  and  the  Straits  Settlements  a  decade  ago,  and  wrote 
to  the  Poultry  World  as  follows:  "I  believe  in  my  last  letter  I  promised 
to  let  you  know  if  I  found  anything  new  in  southern  China  in  relation  to 
poultry.  Although  there  are  no  distinct  breeds  of  fowls  bred  or  known  in 
China  by  the  Chinese,  there  are  yet  a  great  many  specimens  to  be  seen 
in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  so  closely  do  they  resemble  each  other  in 
general  appearance  that  it  is  quite  difficult  to  understand  why  distinctions 
should  be  made;  but  I  find  that  the  different  names  of  all  the  Chinese 
fowls  have  been  given  them  by  the  different  foreigners  who  have  brought 
them  from  various  places  in  Asia,  and  that  if  they  have  procured  them  at 
Shanghai  they  have  called  them  Shanghai  fowls  (Red,  Gray,  and  Buff,  as 
the  case  may  be),  and  if  from  Hong-kong  the  Hong-kong  fowls,  and  so 
on  until  we  have  a  dozen  or  more  different  names  for  the  same  variety. 
That  they  differ  in  some  minor  details  is  true,  for  no  two  can  be  found  of 
exactly  the  same  color.  Some  are  a  chestnut  color,  others  darker,  and 
some  quite  light,  yet  they  can  all  be  seen  in  the  same  yards  together, 
bred  at  random,  and  producing  many  different  colors;  but  in  size  and 
shape  they  are  about  the  same  and  are  known  simply  as  the  Chinese  fowl. 

"  In  various  parts  of  China  (and  intermixed  with  other  fowls)  can  be 
seen  a  large,  faded,  buff-colored  fowl,  the  male  bird  being  a  light  buff 
with  black  penciled  neck-hackle,  dark  wings,  and  black  tail  with  a  greenish 
cast.  Some  of  them  have  single  combs,  others  resemble  the  pea-comb. 
Their  legs  are  yellow  and  well  feathered.  The  hen  is  two  or  three  shades 
lighter  (in  fact,  almost  white),  and  has  a  heavy  body,  short,  yellow,  well- 
feathered  legs,  black  hackle,  dark-gray  wings  and  tail.     These  fowls  will 


528 


The    Poultry    Book 


weigh  about  eighteen  or  twenty  pounds  per  pair.  From  fowls  of  this 
description  I  am  convinced  the  Light  Brahmas  originated.  I  have 
talked  a  great  deal  with  old  residents  of  China,  some  of  whom  know  what 

our  Light  Brahmas  are  and 
have  seen  and  raised  them, 
and  they  all  agree  that  they 
came  from  the  fowls  I  have 
described.  I  am  convinced 
that  Doctor  Brown  was  the 
first  to  notice  them  in  China 
and  keep  them  separate  as 
far  back  as  1840,  and  that 
he  was  one  of  the  first  (if 
not  the  first)  to  introduce 
them  in  America  when  he 
left  China  on  a  visit  to  his 
father  in  Connecticut  in 
January,  1847,  bringing  a 
number  with  him. 

"  There  is  an  impression 
in  the  minds  of  many 
breeders  at  home  and  abroad 
that  all  our  present  varieties 
of  Cochins  are  descended  from  the  original  Cochin-China  fowls  sent 
by  the  British  Ambassador  from  China  to  Her  Majesty  Victoria  of 
England  in  1843.  This  is  hardly  possible,  for  the  Queen  did  not 
exhibit  her  Cochin-Chinas  until  April,  1846,  at  the  Royal  Dublin 
Agricultural  Society,  though  prizes  were  offered  for  Malays  and  other 
Asiatic  breeds  at  the  English  poultry  show  held  at  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  London,  in  1845.  Between  1843  and  1846  several  private 
purchases  were  made  from  ships  coming  from  Chinese  ports.  Sir  Richard 
Ansley  O'Donnell,  of  Newport,  Mayo,  Ireland  (father  of  the  present  Sir 
George  O'Donnell),  had  in  1846  a  nice  flock  of  deep  golden  Buffs  with 
small  single  comb  and  wattles,  black  penciled  hackles,  short  black  tails, 
smooth  yellow  legs,  large  size  of  body  and  slightly  tapering  to  the  tail. 

"At  the  same  time  William  Mairs,  a  Scotch  gentleman   living   two 
miles  from  Newport,  had  a  few  Chinese  fowls,  known  afterward  as  Gray 


OLD-STYLE    SHANGHAI    COCHIN,    l8!;6 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl  529 

Shanghais.  Our  informant,  Joseph  Wallace,  v/hile  temporarily  residing 
at  Newport,  received  a  present  of  the  Shanghais,  and  many  a  time,  with 
young  Sir  George,  they  tried  the  mettle  of  the  Buffs,  as  they  were  pugna- 
ciously inclined.  The  Buffs  possessed  the  same  general  characteristics  as 
those  bred  by  J.  Joseph  Nolan,  of  Dublin,  to  whom  Lord  Heytsbury,  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  gave  the  first  pair  that  were  presented  to  him  by 
the  Queen  in  1846.  The  Gray  Shanghais  were  more  rangy  in  form,  the 
feathering  soft  and  loose,  and  a  few  downy  feathers  appeared  on  their  legs. 

"  In  connection  with  the  royal  Cochin-China  fowl,  it  may  be  surmised 
that  the  original  stock  was  in  the  hands  of  others  besides  those  of  Her 
Majesty  before  1846,  though  Mr.  Dickson,  the  English  poultry  author 
of  that  time,  in  his  work  published  in  1847  makes  no  allusion  even  to  the 
Queen's  fine  fowls.  This  strange  fact  is  accounted  for  by  an  old  English 
fancier,  who  says  that  ]\Ir.  Dickson's  work  was  prepared  several  years 
before  the  advent  of  the  Queen's  Cochin-Chinas,  and  that  owing  to  the  delay 
of  publication,  absence  and  sickness  of  the  author,  it  went  to  press  without 
mention  being  made  of  these  rare  and  grand  fowls,  for  on  no  other  reasonable 
grounds  could  such  palpable  inadvertency  be  excusable. 

' '  Some  writers  seem  to  cast  doubt  on  the  name  Cochin-China  being 
an  appropriate  one  for  the  Queen's  fowls  and  those  which  subsequently 
came  from  China  and  now  classed  under  the  general  name  Cochin.  In 
Wingfield's  'London  Poultry  Book,'  issued  in  1853,  illustrations  of  noted 
Chinese  fowls  appeared  under  the  titles  '  White  Shanghai,'  '  Buff  Shanghai,' 
'Lemon  Shanghai,'  'Partridge  Shanghai,'  etc.  In  a  subsequent  issue 
(1867),  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  the  word  Cochin  is  sub- 
stituted for  Shanghai  under  the  illustrations,  evidently  a  more  appro- 
priate name,  better  liked,  better  understood,  and  better  for  the  class  of 
fowl,  as  the  name  Shanghai,  where  it  became  generally  known,  served  as 
an  epithet  of  ridicule." 

The  above  statement  describes  the  actual  conditions  as  they  seem  to 
have  existed.  We  rest  the  origin  in  these  words  and  proceed  with  the 
Cochins  as  they  were  when  described  by  Mr.  Weir,  who  tells  us  they  were 
very  accommodating  as  to  form  and  feather.  A  few  were  rather  tall, 
some  of  medium  height ;  with  others  the  shanks  were  short ;  while  those 
fanciers  that  were  averse  to  feather-legged  birds  could  have  them  clear 
and  clean  on  those  parts  and  with  skins  and  scales  of  rose-tinted  yellow. 
Rice  and  maize  were  their  prescribed  food,  but  being  coarse  feeders  they 


530  The    Poultry    Book 

would  eat  almost  anything  and,  what  was  a  great  desideratum,  fatten  on 
what  they  had.  They  never  wanted  to  fly  and  cared  but  little  for  walking ; 
being  of  such  a  contented  nature,  they  never  attempted  to  scratch  or 
scrape  for  their  living;  given  a  grass  plot  surrounded  by  a  wire 
fencing  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  they  would  stroll  and  graze  their  fill  and 
then  seek  repose  and  be  restfully  happy. 

As  to  color,  here,  again,  all  could  be  satisfied.  They  varied  from 
white  to  black,  from  light  buff  to  cinnamon,  with  many  shades  of  yellow 
admixture.  While  the  Partridge  and  Grouse  were  of  the  richest  hues,  the 
Silver  Cinnamon  claimed  to  be  the  most  beautiful.  Of  the  feathers  and 
fluff,  it  was  said  that  the  former  surpassed  those  of  the  goose  for  bedding 
and  the  latter  swan's-down  for  pillows.  The  flesh  was  mellow,  flavory, 
rich,  juicy,  tender,  and  plentiful.  True  it  was  that  in  the  breast  meat 
there  was  a  deficiency,  but  then  there  was  the  thigh  and  leg  of  a  sheep  in 
size  by  way  of  compensation.  No,  there  never  was  such  a  fowl.  By  its 
advent  a  new  era  in  British  poultry  began.  The  sanguine  prophesied 
active  improvement,  while  the  far-seeing  and  experienced  almost  timidly 
hinted  at  disastrous  deterioration. 

At  what  period  or  date  the  Shanghai  fowls  were  imported  to  England 
is  not  very  clear.  In  the  early  forties,  Mr.  Weir  says,  some  were  said  to 
have  been  landed  in  Cornwall,  others  domiciled  in  Wales,  and  Captain 
Heaviside,  of  Walthamstow,  had  some  sent  to  him  by  Captain  Elder, 
whose  letter  accompanying  them  was  dated  ' '  Oft'  Canton ,  August  2 1 , 
1842."  Mr.  Weir  says  he  never  saw  any  of  these.  It  was  in  1843  that 
Her  late  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  received  five  pullets  and  two  cockerels 
under  the  name  of  "Cochin  fowls."  A  drawing  of  these  appeared  in  the 
Illustrated  London  News,  December  23,  1843.  This  picture  w^as  made 
from  the  birds  by  Samuel  Read,  an  architectural  artist  of  high  repute; 
but  never  having  attempted  the  task  of  delineating  along  this  line,  and  not 
in  the  least  understanding  poultry,  the  result  bears  but  a  small  resemblance 
to  the  actual  birds.  In  a  sense  the  drawing  is  useful,  giving  as  it  does  the 
carriage  of  the  two  cockerels.  In  a  conversation  with  Mr.  Read  respecting 
the  fowls,  he  described  them  to  Mr.  Weir.  He  said  they  were  very  bright 
and  lively,  quick  and  alert,  and  to  his  idea  very  much  resembled  in  form 
and  carriage  what  he  had  been  shown  as  Malays.  The  cockerels  were  a  rich 
red,  with  dark  marks  on  the  upper  part  of  the  breast ;  the  pullets  were  red, 
with  redder  or  browner  pencilings,  and  the  legs  (shanks)  of  a  bright  yellow. 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl 


531 


Some  time  after  Mr.  Weir  had  occasion  to  go  to  the  Windsor  poultry 
yards.  Asking  to  see  the  Cochin  fowls,  he  was  told  the  cocks  were  dead, 
but  that  two  of  the  hens  were  alive.  One  of  the  cocks  had  been  stuffed, 
and  so  preserved.  Examining  the  two  hens,  Mr.  Weir  foimd  they  did 
compare  somewhat  favorably  with  the  drawing  made  by  Mr.  Read. 
They  were  upright  in  carriage,  decidedly  of  the  Malay  type,  with  fairly 
long  tails  and  no  cushion.  They  had  scarcely  any  fluff  on  their  thighs, 
but  were  clean,  as  shown  by  Mr.  Read.  The  combs  were  single,  clear  red, 
and  small,  as  were  also  the  wattles.  The  ear-lobes  were  larger;  the  neck 
hackle  somewhat  sparse  and  Malay-like,  though  the  whole  of  the  feathering 
was  very  much  longer  than  any  Indian  fowl  he  had  hitherto  seen.     In 


TYPE    OF    SHANGHAIS    IN     li 


532  The    Poultry   Book 

fact,  says  Mr.  Weir,  they  in  no  way  resembled  the  feather-shanked 
fowl  called  the  Shanghai.  The  stuffed  specimen  cock  was  very  bright 
and  rich  in  coloring,  the  hackles,  back,  saddle,  and  wing  bow^  being  of  a 
rich,  deep,  varying  orange-red,  much  deeper  on  the  back;  there  was  no 
horseshoe  in  the  breast,  which  was  a  deep  yellowish-chestnut,  with  here 
and  there  a  dark  feather ;  the  tail  was  black  with  a  green  sheen ;  the  sickle 
feathers  were  longer  than  the  others,  while  the  whole  tail  was  by  no  means 
small,  but  full;  the  tail  coverts,  especially  the  lesser  ones,  were  bronzy 
brown  edged  with  orange;  the  shanks  and  feet  were  strongly  made  and 
the  spurs  large  and  sharp.  It  was  evidently  a  bird  in  at  least  his 
third  year. 

When  Mr.  Weir  went  to  Windsor  again  to  sketch  the  Gray  Shanghais 
sent  by  Burnham  in  the  early  part  of  1853  he  inquired  after  the  Cochins, 
and  learned  that  all  were  gone.  Not  a  single  pure -bred  one  remained. 
The  stuffed  skin  of  the  cock  was  still  standing  in  the  window,  but  being 
without  a  glass  covering  it  was  almost  in  the  last  stage  of  decay.  j\Ir. 
Weir  told  this  to  IMr.  Baily,  and  desired  him  to  go  and  see  the  specimen, 
as  it  would  prove  to  him  that  there  was  no  resemblance  between  those  of 
Her  late  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  and  Messrs.  Moody,  Sturgeon,  and 
Punchard's  Shanghais.  He  did  go  and  see  the  fowl.  Later,  when  he 
met  Mr.  Weir,  he  said  as  far  as  the  specimen  stuffed  cock  was  concerned 
a\Ir.  Weir  was  right.  Samuel  Read's  drawing  shows  how  widely  different 
the  birds  were  from  the  Shanghai  in  build,  fluff,  feathering,  and  upright 
carriage,  having  clean,  rather  small-boned,  but  strong  shanks.  Thus 
Mr.  Weir  is  of  opinion  that  these  possibly  might  have  been  Cochin  fowls. 
Later,  at  the  Zoological  Society's  show,  Regent's  Park,  those  shown  by 
Messrs.  Baker,  of  Chelsea,  much  resembled  them;  and  though  by  some 
said  to  be  Malays,  tl.e  Messrs.  Baker  assured  Mr.  Weir  that  certainly 
they  were  not,  but  imported  by  them  direct  from  China.  It  was  John 
Baily 's  opinion  also  that  they  were  not  Malays  as  we  knew  the  breed, 
but  a  Chinese  breed.  George  Landseer  drew  one  set  of  these  for  the 
Illustrated  London  News  and  Mr.  Weir  the  other. 

Writing  of  the  modern  Cochin,  Mr.  Weir,  when  referring  to  vulture 
or  falcon  hocks,  states  that  at  one  time  there  might  be  seen  in  England 
birds  with  hocks  having  long,  stiff  quilly  feathers,  both  in  size  and  form 
equalizing  those  of  the  primary  and  secondary  wing  feathers;  then 
more  on  the  shanks    and   more    on    the    feet,    longer,    looser,   and  more 


The   Shanghai  or   Cochin   Fowl 


533 


THOMAS    sturgeon's    BUFF    SHANGHAI    COCKEREL    "  JERRY 
Showing  the  shape,  hocks,  and  feathering  of  the  bird  in  1853 

fluffy  everywhere,  until  the  birds  looked  is  if  they  were  a  moving  mass  of 
colored  softness  of  utter  uselessness.  With  all  this  it  had  and  has  its 
own  peculiar  beauties — its  lines  of  elegance,  its  placid  habits,  its  gentleness 
and  entire  domestication,  which  rendered  it,  and  does  still  even  as  a  curiosity 
in  bird  life,  worth  having  and  observing.  After  all,  as  it  is  now  there  is 
something  charming  and  attractive  in  this  wonderful  variation  by  selection 
from  that  of  the  wildly  natural. 

But   the   large,    strong  hock  coverings   had  their  day.     Like  many 
other  absurdities,  they  were  decried  and  said  to  be  wrong  and  unsightly, 


534  The    Poultry  Book 

but  having  been  the  fashion  it  was  difficult  to  get  rid  of  them.  In  many 
cases  in  exhibition  birds  this  was  done  by  the  simple  process  of  pulling 
them  out.  Even  to  this  day  the  deteriorating  disfigurement  exists  in  a 
large  degree.  What  was  the  first  outcome  of  this  feather  exaggeration? 
The  more  of  feathering  the  less  the  number  of  eggs;  less  inclination  or 
ability  in  the  bird  to  move  about  in  search  of  food  or  even  to  graze;  the 
flesh  became  coarser  and  dryer,  and  less  of  it,  because  much  of  the  muscular 
system  was  unused.  The  feathers  took  the  lime  that  the  bones  should 
have,  and  so  arose  twisted  breasts,  etc.  Still,  though  it  has  lost  utility,  it 
is  a  fowl  apart  from  all  others,  singular  in  aspect,  and  yet,  to  Mr.  Weir's 
way  of  thinking,  much  to  be  admired.  As  they  now  are,  ]\Ir.  Weir  says, 
possibly  he  would  not  care  to  keep  them,  as  they  require  so  much  care 
and  attention  to  keep  their  plumage  in  condition ;  but  in  the  hands  of  others, 
to  whom  such  careful  study  is  a  pleasure,  Mr.  Weir  still  thinks  the  breed  a 
desirable  and  peculiarly  interesting  one. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  follow  the  varying  fortunes,  the  varying  colors 
and  forms  of  the  ancient  breed.  Sometimes  their  value  increases,  and 
again  there  is  a  lull  in  the  demand;  then  a  rise,  then  a  fall;  but  always 
there  are  at  least  a  few  who  want  and  will  have  only  the  best;  $50  to  Si 00 
or  more  is  now  given,  not  only  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing,  but  of  having. 
These  are  the  fancy  forms  and  featherings,  but  widely  diftering  from  the 
early  imported  birds  which  Mr.  Weir  saw  and  some  of  which  he  kept ;  they, 
as  Miss  AVatts  describes  them,  had  merely  a  strip  of  feathers  down  the 
outside  of  the  shanks;  these  were  feathery  and  cushiony,  some  of  them 
being  well-breasted  and  meaty  birds,  while  most,  if  not  all,  were  very 
excellent  layers,  but  now  it  is  not  so  with  the  fanciers'  fancy. 

In  America  falcon  hocks  are  a  disqualification,  yet  the  hocks  must  be 
well  and  heavily  feathered,  with  plenty  of  soft  incurving  plumage,  also 
with  the  shanks  and  feet  thickly  clothed.  Still,  even  this  militates  against 
the  flesh  formation  and  the  fecundity  in  egg-production. 

Yet  the  Shanghai  of  to-day  is  a  wonderful  fowl,  a  grand  exemplification 
of  the  poultry  fancier's  art,  and  the  marvelous  outcome  of  careful,  thought- 
ful breeding,  wise  selection,  and  in  no  way  deviating,  but  steadily  keeping 
on  in  the  only  but  narrow  path  that  could  possibly  end  in  the  full  attain- 
ment of  the  desired  object — that  of  perfection.  This  the  Shanghai  fancier 
has  attained.  He  can  go  no  further.  He  has  bred  for  an  ideal  which, 
unprofitable  though  it  may  be,  still  has  a  certain  class  of  beauty  that  is 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl  535 

worthy  of  our  admiration.  There  is  a  poetic  charm  about  these  gentle 
domesticated  fowls  that  is  not  possessed  by  any  other;  they  have  a  way 
so  confiding  and  trusting  that  they  seem  to  belong  more  to  the  household 
than  to  the  poultry-yard.  What  they  were  once  is  one  thing  and  what 
they  are  now  is  quite  another.  Though  they  certainly  have  lost  much  of 
that  fecundity  for  which  they  won  fame  and  notoriety,  still  the  change 
has  not  been  all  loss,  for  in  the  Shanghai  as  it  now  is  we  have  a  breed  of 
domestic  poultry  grandly  handsome  and  widely  differentiated  from  all 
others. 

These  notes  relate  chiefly  to  the  Buff,  and  this  is  a  color,  as  is  well 
known,  that  has  many  hues  and  tints.  Formerly  a  yellow  or  canary  held 
sway,  then  a  deeper,  then  a  cream,  then  richer;  again  paler,  tending  to 
a  red;  again  a  more  solid  color,  and  to-day  a  vivid  yellowish-red,  both 
pleasing  and 
bright.  A  flock  in 
a  green  grass-field  ^^-^^^\ 

in  its  best  attire  is  ^^hf' 

a  sight  long  to  be  ■^'^V'' '  ^ 

remembered.  This 
color  from  the  first 
has  ruled  the  fancy, 
and  for  all  pur- 
poses it  is  generally 
known  as  the  Buff 
Cochin,  though 
none  of  it  but  the 
Shanghai. 

The  dark, 
black-breasted 


\ 


■ 


./■ 


brown-reds  are         ■  "    ^ '""^ '" />^ 

noble,     heavily  f^—^ 

booted,    massive       : 
birds.     They    and 
their    Partridge- 
colored    hues    claim    attention    and    thoroughly    merit    it;    while   those 
similarly  marked   and  known  as  Grouse,  the  Brown  Grouse  also,  being 
of  a  rufus  color,  were,  when  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Tuddman,  most  attract- 


pyom  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Wi 
COCHIN    PULLET 


536  The    Poultry    Book 


PRIZE  BUFF  COCHIN  PULLET 


ive,  as  the  brilliant  cinnamons — the  silver  cinnamons — the  silver  grays, 
without  a  tint  of  brown,  red,  or  yellow.  These  looked,  if  not  so,  near 
akin  to  the  Brahma.  Mr.  Weir  says  he  has  never  seen  any  blues,  but 
thinks  there  is  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be. 

In  the  fifties  the  black  were  somewhat  in  evidence.  They  were 
superb,  with  a  rich  purplish-black  sheen  on  their  dense  colored  plumage. 
Some  were  imported.  They  were  bred  mostly  from  a  buff  and  a  white 
or,  better  still,  a  black  and  a  white.  Generally  they  would  come  whole 
colored,  either  white,  brown,  or  black.  A  few  cockerels  of  these  blacks 
so  bred  turned  brassy-winged  in  their  second  molt,  but  not  all.  The 
hens  scarcely  ever  changed.     All  had  yellow  shanks,  though  some  were 


The    Shanghai   or    Cochin    Fowl  537 

slightly  sooty,  while  others  were  of  a  rich  orange.  Of  the  best  were  those  of 
Captain  John  Fairlie,  of  Chevely  Park,  Newmarket,  and  were  of  a  deep 
purple-black.  None  of  these  had  the  jewel  emerald-green  of  the  Langshan, 
and  until  their  importation  such  was  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  Then 
it  was  that  this  latter  was  declared  by  the  ignorant  of  both  breeds  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  Black  Cochin,  and  this  with  a  dogged  determination 
not  to  be  convinced  to  the  contrary.  But  as  dripping  water  w411  wear  the 
hardest  stone,  so  it  was  that  the  gentle  pressure  of  fact  overpowered 
an  ill-conceived  obstinacy  that  should  never  have  existed.  But  the  worst 
was  that  these  Cochinists  advised  the  Black  Shanghai  fanciers  to  throw 
aside  the  yellow  shank  and  breed  black.  Then  came  muddle  and  mixture 
and  their  enlightenment.  Now  the  black  are  again  yellow-shanked,  as 
they  were  and  should  be. 

There  were  two  distinct  shades  of  white.  One  was  the  pure  albino, 
and  the  chicks,  when  hatched,  were  a  light  straw  color;  these  had  gray 
eyes  and  were,  when  feathered,  very  white.  This  variety,  when  bred  with 
Buffs,  never  threw  dark  birds,  but  mostly  mealies  or  silver  cinnamons. 
The  other  white  was  a  gray  chicken  when  hatched,  and  got  more  sooty, 
but  molted  apparently  pure  white.  It  was  from  these  mated  with  blacks 
that  the  best  blacks  were  bred.  Mr.  Weir  had  some  of  both  varieties 
nearly  fifty  years  ago;  whether  such  exist  now  in  England  he  does  not 
know,  for  the  whole  of  his  stock  was  bought  by  a  Mr.  Butler  and  brought 
to  America. 

Mr.  Weir  thinks  the  Buff  Shanghais  will  again  come  into  favor, 
though  possibly  never  to  realize  their  former  high  position  and  prices; 
but  their  simple  habits,  quiet,  tame,  gentle  ways,  their  color  and  singular 
beauty  must,  he  believes,  again  reassert  their  presence  and,  however 
reluctantly,  bring  them  many  admirers.  Perhaps  it  is  the  trouble  and 
difficulty  of  showing  them  in  high  condition,  the  washing,  etc.,  that  has 
somewhat  tended  toward  their  neglect.  Even  if  that  is  so,  might  they  not 
be  kept  about  our  grounds  as  ornaments  and  as  fowls  usefully  so?  for, 
being  non-scrapers,  the  damage,  were  they  to  attempt  it,  would  be  so 
slight  as  to  be  almost  if  not  quite  imnoticeable. 

The  Cochin  Fowl  in  America 

There  cannot  be  any  compromise  between  the  types  of  modern 
English  and  American  Cochin.     While  both  have  the  same  general  origin. 


538  The    Poultry    Book 

the}'  are  so  different  in  form  and  feather  as  to  be  almost  a  separate  family 
Early  in  the  nineties  there  was  an  effort  put  forth  to  introduce  the  English 
type  into  this  country  as  full-feathered  Cochins.  Thousands  of  dollars 
were  spent  to  push  them  into  popularity,  but  the  venture  was  a  failure 
and  the  supremacy  of  the  American  type  of  Cochin  was  fully  established. 
The  main  difference  is  in  the  length  of  legs,  hock  feathering,  and  the  shape 
of  breast.  We  favor  the  short  legs,  full,  soft  fluff  and  hock,  full,  round 
breast  and  forward  carriage,  while  the  English  Cochin  has  long  legs,  long, 
stiff  vulture  hocks,  and  flat,  high-carried  breast. 

The  early-day  Cochin  in  America  was  not  so  fully  feathered  as  now; 
in  fact,  the  Cochin  of  fifteen  years  ago,  for  shape  and  feather,  was  quite 
like  the  present-day  New  England  Brahma;  but  with  the  coming  of  the 
full-feathered  Cochins  mentioned  above  came  the  ambition  and  determina- 
tion to  have  equally  as  much  fluff  and  feather  as  they  without  the  vulture 
hocks,  long  legs,  and  flat  breasts.  Along  these  lines  have  been  built  the 
beautiful  Cochins  of  to-day.  They  have  all  the  much-admired  feather  any 
one  could  wish,  and  none  of  the  objectionable  points  raised  against  the 
English  type.  We  now  have  them  far  in  advance  of  ten  years  ago  and 
far  ahead  of  the  whole  world  in  form,  feather,  and  color. 

When  the  American  standard  was  first  compiled  we  had  the  pale  or 
lemon,  the  dark  or  cinnamon,  and  the  true  buff  colors.  In  the  face  of 
this  and  the  fact  that  three  separate  classes  had  been  the  rule  for  shows 
prior  to  this  time,  the  standard  of  1868,  the  one  original  as  compiled  by 
A.  M.  Halstead,  declared  for  the  one  buff  color,  then  termed  for  males 
"rich,  deep  golden  buff","  for  females  "uniform,  clear,  deep  buff  through- 
out." This  was  changed  somewhat  by  the  American  Poultry  Association 
in  their  standard  of  1875,*  which  called  for  rich,  clear  buff'.  Since  that 
time  the  tendency  has  been  for  a  uniform  color  of  an  even  shade  of  golden 
buff  throughout,  the  male  and  female  as  nearly  one  color  as  it  is  possible 
to  have  them,  now  described  as  "rich  golden  buff." 

The  original  of  all  Cochins  as  they  came  from  China  were  pale  or 
lemon  buff,  dark  red  or  cinnamon  buff',  and  brown  or  Partridge  color. 
Whites  and  blacks  came  later,  but  were  very  scarce.  The  pale  or  lemon 
Buff's  and  the  pure  white  had  originally  the  most  feather  and  the  more 

*  A.  AI.  Halstead  compiled  and  owned  the  original  American  .standard  of  1S6S,  1870, 
and  1 87 1.  This  was  absorbed  by  the  Poultry  Association  standard  of  1875,  now  "The 
American  Standard  of  Perfection." 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl 


539 


rotund  or  Cochin  form.  We  noticed  this  from  the  very  first.  It  is  recorded 
that  Mr.  Sturgeon  selected  the  pale  or  lemon  from  all  the  rest  for  their 
beauty  of  form  and  feather.  This  might  naturally  be,  for  the  Buff  is  the 
favored  color  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and  would,  through  preference, 
have  the  most 
care  and  atten- 
tion bestowed 
upon  them.  This 
condition  would 
improve  or  finish 
them  to  a  truei 
type  than  might 
be  with  the 
others. 

From  the 
very  earliest  im- 
portation, a  cin- 
namon cock  and 
hen  and  a  Par- 
tridge -colored 
hen  (she  in  reality 
a  brown-penciled 
hen),  there  were 
produced  speci- 
mens, some  of 
which  were 
lemon-  colored, 
while  others 
were  Partridge- 
colored  and  still 
others   cinnamon 

in  color;  all  three  shades  from  the  one  deep  cinnamon-colored  pair 
and  the  brownish  or  Grouse-colored  hen.  This  seems  to  show  plainly 
that  all  colors  must  have  been  bred  promiscuously,  as  was  our 
early-day  barnyard  fowls  and  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  prior  to  their 
separation  into  exclusive  varieties.  We  have  seen  Cochins  in  the 
show-pen  of  the  then-called  Cinnamon  variety  of  about  the  same  shade 


I 


.:^^^^ 


BUFF   COCHIN    COCKEREL 


540 


The    Poultry    Book 


t 

■':  i' ■■■  '     *.'  *•  "^ 

1 

■■-  ''■'■ 

im 

Is  1  ."'k*  vt-;-  %  \  ^bBPi  ^ 

•INlf-^i*-   ^^   ;^'^'''*„'' 

L   ■ 

1 

•»   H  1          T*!* 

^S-.v-a! 

"^ 

'^^^ 

n 

Photograph  by  courtesy  o/ Mr. 
WHITE    COCHINS    IN    THEIR    SUMMER    QUARTERS 
Bred  and  owned  by  J.  D.  Nevius,  New  Jersey 


of  color  as  are  many  of  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  of  to-day,  and  they 
did  not  reproduce  much  better  at  that  time  than  do  the  Rhode  Island  Reds 
of  to-day.  We  have  seen  two  or  three  shades  of  color,  all  from  one 
clutch  of  eggs  laid  by  a  single  hen  and  mated  to  but  one  male  throughout 
the  season. 

The  writer  has  constantly  bred  Cochins  for  nearly  forty  years,  but  not 
in  all  this  time  have  I  known  of  a  strain  of  Buff  Cochins  that  would  not 
show  from  time  to  time  the  early  day  evils  of  cinnamon  color,  red  wing 
bows,  black  in  wings  and  tail,  and  black  marks  or  stripes  in  neck  hackle. 
It  was  not  unusual  in  early  days  to  have  female  Buff  Cochins  show  quite 
as  much  striping  in  hackle  as  did  the  Brahmas  of  the  time.  This  striping 
is  shown  in  a  colored  picture  made  by  Mr.  Weir  prior  to  1853.  Our 
standard  of  1875  mentions  that  black  at  end  of  hackle  is  not  a  disqualifica- 
tion. This  fact  I  made  prominent  as  a  connecting  link  between  all  our 
Asiatic  fowls.  Mr.  Weir  would  add  to  this  the  pea-comb  of  a  variety 
called  "Pea-Comb  Partridge  Cochins,"  but  I  rather  think  that  strain 
was  produced  through  a  Dark  Brahma  cross. 

In  early  days  we  had  the  Shanghai,  the  Chittagong,  and  the  Brahma- 
Pootras,  all  of  which  came  from  the  Asiatic  countries.  They  must  have 
been  related  one  to  the  other,  as  are  the  Chinese  of  the  several  provinces, 
who  differ  quite  as  much  as  did  the  early-day  fowls  from  their  land.  Each 
has  been  guided  into  its  separate  form,  differing  much  in  the  same  breeds 
and  varieties,  not  only  in  this  country  and  England,  but  in  the  extreme 
localities  of  China.     If  this  is  true  of  the  present-day  fowls  as  we  find  them 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl 


S4I 


after  years  of  care  and  breeding,  we  should  not  wonder  at  the  several 
forms  and  colors,  combs,  smooth  or  feathered  shanks  in  earlier  times. 

The  true  Cochin  is  a  bird  of  feather.  The  more  profuse  they  are  in 
plumage  the  better  Cochins  will  they  be  considered,  providing  they  are 
rotund  of  form  and  true  to  Cochin  type  and  variety  color.  They 
should  be  deep  and  massive  of  form,  strong  and  vigorous,  with  an  at- 
tractive dignity  of  poise  that  is  so  suited  to  their  form.  They  have  a 
natural  tendency  to  lean  rather  downward  or  forward,  which  gives  them 
the  low  carriage  of  breast.  With  the  breast  carried  low  and  the  cushion 
well  up,  you  have  the  great  depth  of  body  through  these  sections.  This, 
with  the  full  fluff,  leg  and  toe  feather,  unites  to  build  out  the  massive  form 
in  feathers  of  the  true  Cochin. 

The  massive  form  of  feathers  is  built  out  by  the  excess  of  down  or 
under  fluff  of  the  Cochin  plumage,  which  largely  overbalances  the  web. 
This  excess  of  fluff  builds  out  each  section  into  the  rotundity  of  form  that 
gives  to  the  well-feathered  Cochin  the  appearance  of  a  ball  of  feathers. 
With  all  this  there  should  not  be  any  stiff  or  vulture  hocks.  Plenty  of 
feathers  may  be  obtained  and  maintained  without  the  extended  stiff 
plumage  at  hock,  and  plenty  of  form  and  feather  may  be  had  with  good 
liberal  size  and  a  full  round  breast.  All  of  this  is  an  absolute  necessity 
for  the  true  Cochin,  and  any  deviation  from  these  lines  detracts  from  true 
quality  and  desirability. 

In  type,  shape,  or  form  all  Cochins  should  be  the  same,  no  matter 
what  the  variety  color  may  be.     The   shape   must  be  the  same   in   all. 


542  The   Poultry    Book 

The  head,  broad  and  deep  and  full  over  the  eyes,  where  the  head  and  neck 
join,  is  plainly  shown  by  a  slight  ridge  or  juncture  as  called.  The  head  is 
ornamented  by  a  nice,  even,  well-balanced  comb.  It  roiands  off  to  conform 
to  the  shape  of  the  head.  The  finish  of  comb  is  smooth  and  free  from  all 
unevenness,  supplemented  with  full  pendant  wattles  and  ear-lobes  that 
hang  almost  even  in  length.  The  former  the  largest  and  longest;  eyes 
bright  and  attractive,  bay  in  color;  the  head  gracefully  placed  upon  the 
short,  full,  handsomely  arched  neck  with  its  long,  flowing  hackle  that 
sweeps  well  over  the  back.  This  rounds  up  the  one-fourth  of  the 
specimen  in  what  may  be  called  the  introduction  to  Cochin  beauty. 
There  is  seldom  seen  upon  a  fowl  a  more  attractive  portion  than  is 
presented  by  the  true  Cochin  head  and  neck,  the  form  and  carriage  of 
which  is  grace  itself. 

The  back,  saddles,  and  cushion  unite  with  the  tail  to  build  out  Cochin 
form ;  the  full-flowing  hackle  that  comes  so  far  down  over  the  back  of  the 
male  unites  with  these  to  build  out  or  round  up  the  shape  and  shorten  its 
appearance.  The  saddle,  or  cushion,  should  begin  to  take  form  just  where 
the  flowing  hackle  ends ;  the  dense  under  fluff  of  the  plumage  of  the  back 
builds  out  the  cushion  into  almost  a  perfect  half -globe;  the  spread  of 
the  main  tail  feathers  under  the  coverts  backs  up  or  maintains  the 
shape  of  the  cushion  as  if  the  entire  cushion  and  tail  was  one  and 
the  same.  The  tail  of  the  male  should  be  short  and  spread  at 
base,  and  well  filled  under  and  between  with  a  profusion  of  soft 
feathers,  the  whole  hidden  away  beneath  a  profusion  of  coverts 
and  lesser  sickles;  the  more  of  these  the  better,  so  as  to  almost  hide 
from  sight  the  main  tail  feathers.  The  beauty  and  finish  of  the 
Cochin  male  depend  very  much  upon  the  length  of  feather  about  the 
cushion  and  tail.  The  longer  and  more  flowing  these  can  be  the  greater 
the  beauty  and  finish. 

The  breadth  of  shoulder  is  of  vast  importance,  as  is  the  cupping  of 
the  wing  bows ;  the  filling  out  of  the  muscles  under  the  wings  rounds  up 
same  and  adds  to  the  rotund  form  of  body.  With  this  goes  the  full,  round 
breast  of  both  width  and  depth;  these  supported  by  a  long,  full  under- 
body  give  the  massive  form  so  much  to  be  desired  in  the  Cochin.  Great 
breadth  between  the  thighs  and  shanks  allows  the  body  to  fill  in  and 
settle  down  between  them;  the  long,  flowing  or  profusely  fluffy  feather- 
ing   about    abdomen    and    thighs    entirely    hides    from   view    the    hock 


The    Shanghai    or   Cochin    Fowl 


543 


joints    without    the    presence  of    any  stiff  hock  feathering.     About  the 

hocks  should  be  profuse   feathering   that   rounds   up   about   same,    but 

no   vulture   hocks;   the   feathering  of  shanks   should  join  in  under  the 

hock    plumage    so     as     to 

avoid    any    appearance    of 

a  break  between  the  thigh 

and    shank    plumage.     All 

this    profusion    of    long, 

soft     feathers    above     the 

hock     joint    should    be 

upheld    by    strong,    heavy 

shank    and    feet   that   are 

entirely   hidden    by   shank 

and  toe  feathering. 

The  female  must  con- 
form to  the  general 
make-up  of  the  male  in 
a  feminine  fashion;  the 
shorter  hackle  plumage 
gives  her  a  longer  appear- 
ance; the  shape  of  cushion 
makes  it  look  larger;  the 
main  tail  feathers  gathered 
together  in  the  center 
of  the  rear  of  cushion 
often  droop  a  little,  as  if 
weighed  down  by  weight 
of  cushion ;  the  low-carried 
breast  and  shorter  legs 
give  her  the  very  low 
carriage  so  much  to  be 
desired.  The  most  com- 
plete Cochin  hen  is  almost  round  in  form  and  so  profuse  in  feather  as  to 
be  called  a  ball  of  down.  Both  the  male  and  female  must  be  round  of 
form  in  every  section,  without  any  fiat  formations  on  either  back  or 
breast ;  well  rounded  up  and  profusely  feathered  in  each  and  every  section 
is  the  rule  for  quality. 


WHITE    COCHIN 
iie-winner  at  New  York, 


544  The    Poultry    Book 

The  Buff  Cochin 

No  MENTION  can  be  made  of  this  variety  of  Cochins  without  bringing 
to  mind  the  names  of  Sturgeon,  Moody,  Baily,  and  Proctor,  of  England, 
who  have  done  so  much  to  improve  the  Cochins  of  their  country,  as  have 
WilHams,  Pool,  Crosby,  and  Doolittle  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  this 
variety  of  Cochins  in  America.  Mr.  Pool  was  the  first  to  have  the  males 
and  females  of  the  same  shade  of  color  of  r.  equality  that  stood  supreme 
in  the  show-room.  The  writer  originated  what  was  known  as  the  "Gold- 
Dust  Strain,"  the  first  to  have  one  even  shade  of  buff  throughout  without 
foreign  color.  To  ]\Iessrs.  Sharp  Brothers,  of  Oakland  Farm,  belongs 
the  credit  of  the  modern  full-feathered  Cochin  of  the  present,  they  having 
completed  the  work  that  had  been  started  by  the  others,  after  a  fashion 
that  has  gained  for  them  and  their  Cochins  an  international  reputation. 

This  variety  of  Cochins  was  the  first  of  all  Buff  fowls.  From  them, 
it  is  claimed,  has  been  drawn  the  color  or  start  for  all  Buff  breeds  or  varieties. 
No  color  is  more  difficult  to  fully  understand  or  handle,  none  more  beau- 
tiful than  a  perfect  shade,  and  none  less  attractive  than  a  bad  shade. 
To  be  near  perfection  the  Buff  Cochin  must  be  of  true  Cochin  shape  and 
one  even  shade  of  "rich  golden  buff"  throughout,  and  free  from  other 
foreign  colors.  The  under  color  should  be  of  a  lighter  shade  than 
surface  color;  surface  color  or  the  color  of  the  web  of  the  feather  to 
be  so  close  or  dense  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  mealiness  or  white 
ticking  showing  in  the  plumage.  The  thin  or  washy  shade  of  color  should 
be  equally  condemned  with  foreign  color.  The  true  golden  buff"  is  the 
only  shade  that  looks  well  and  holds  its  own  under  all  conditions.  It  is 
the  only  shade  that  can  be  depended  upon  to  reproduce  good  quality. 

There  has  been  a  tendency  to  favor  the  thin  or  lemon  shade  in  all 
Buff  fowls.  This  is  an  error;  usually  all  such  have  white  under  color; 
they  cannot  possibly  reproduce  even  as  good  color  as  they  possess,  and 
the  greater  part  of  their  progeny  will  have  white  in  the  wings.  This  came 
as  the  result  of  sacrificing  all  to  a  light  surface  color  to  be  rid  of  the 
black  in  plumage.  The  only  way  to  gain  or  have  true,  even  buff'  color  is 
to  use  only  such  in  your  matings  for  the  reproduction  of  better  than  you 
may  have.  The  presence  of  black  in  any  part  of  plumage  of  the  parent 
fowls  assures  a  deeper  shade  of  plumage  on  their  chicks,  while  white  or 
white  under  color  also  softens  or  reduces  the  shade. 


^^«m\ 


/ 


r 


^ .' 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  George  RoutUdse  &  Sons- 
WHITE   SHANGHAI   COCK   OF    1853 
Bred  by  Mrs.  Herbert.    Owned  by  Mr.  Sturgeon 


The    Shanghai    or   Cochin    Fowl 


547 


There  are  two  peculiar  things  about  the  buff  color  of  fowls.  The 
males  at  two  years  old  generally  have  a  deeper  or  darker  shade  of  surface 
color  than  as  cockerels.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hens  have  usually  the 
reverse.  By  inbreeding  there  is  usually  some  loss  in  color  between  the 
parent  fowls  and  the  chicks.  For  this  reason  we  must  mate  to  overcome 
or  allow  for  this.  Naturally  if  unguided  the  males  would  be  considerably 
darker  than  the  females.  This  was  originally  true  of  both  the  Cochins  and 
the  Cochin  Bantams.  Only  after  years  of  constant  care  has  this  been 
brought  under  our  control,  and  to  this  time  must  be  continually  guarded 
against. 

There  are  three  plans  of  mating  for  color,  while  there  is  but  one  for 
shape,  if  we  produce  the  best  type  of  Cochins  in  size,  form,  and  feather. 


I 


TYPE   OF   THE    PRESENT-STYLE    COCHIN 


548 


The    Poultry    Book 


~1 


"'"'^'^p^f!!!!?!; 


PRIZE    WHITE    COCHIN 


The  necessary  qualities  should  be  present  largely  in  the  parent  stock.  Do 
not  hope  to  produce  good  size,  shape,  or  feather  from  stock  lacking  these 
quaHties.  Size  comes  largely  from  the  female,  while  color  and  finish 
are  transmitted  through  the  male.  Select  only  as  producing-stock  the  very 
best  specimens.  Pay  special  attention  to  head,  comb,  wattles,  ear- 
lobes,  and  eyes.  Have  the  eyes  bright  and  bay  in  color,  indicating  both 
health  and  vigor.     This  is  an  important  factor  in  obtaining  good  results. 

In  mating  for  color  select  the  male  of  a  shade  or  two  darker  than 
the  female.  The  breast  color  of  the  male  should  be  a  full  shade  darker  than 
that  of  the  female.  In  under  color  the  male  should  be  rich  and  true  to 
the  skin  if  possible;  in  both  the  shade  or  tinge  the  under  color  should 
be  some  lighter  than  the  surface  color.     Hens  true  in  color  shade  when 


The    Shanghai   or    Cochin    Fowl  549 

pullets  may  be  used,  providing  the  under  color  is  good.  Hens  that  hold 
their  color  at  two  or  three  years  old  invariably  produce  the  most  valuable 
stock  for  exhibition  purposes.  I  once  possessed  a  hen  that  at  four  years 
produced  some  twenty  chicks,  fourteen  of  which  made  presentable  exhibi- 
tion fowls.  All  her  progeny  were  valuable  producers.  When  bred  in 
line  from  such  stock  true  color  may  be  established  and  maintained. 

Never  make  use  of  poor,  thin,  or  mealy  colored  Buffs  in  hope  of  im- 
proving stock.  Better  kill  or  discard  as  breeders  400  of  poor  quality  and 
stick  to  four  of  the  proper  quality.  In  selecting  the  male  a  shade  or  more 
darker  than  the  females  with  which  he  is  mated,  we  provide  against  the 
natural  loss  in  color  mentioned  above.  By  so  doing  one  should  have 
both  males  and  females  from  this  mating  the  proper  shade  of  buff  for  the 
exhibition  room.  This  is  what  would  be  called  single  or  standard  mating, 
or  the  producing  of  both  males  and  females  of  exhibition  quality  from 
the  one  single  mating. 

Some  of  the  very  finest  exhibition  specimens  are  produced  through  a^ 
system  of  double  matings — that  is,  to  mate  separate  pens,  one  to  produce 
males,  the  other  to  produce  females.  In  this  way  are  produced  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  pullets.  For  producing  males  the  same  rule  as  de- 
scribed above  is  followed,  only  the  shade  of  the  breast  color  of  both  may 
be  uniform.  For  producing  pullets  they  mate  together  hens,  pullets,  and 
male  birds,  all  of  what  might  be  called  almost  a  lemon  shade  of  bufi:.  In 
the  pairing  of  these  soft  shades  some  beautiful  pullets  are  produced,  but 
seldom  a  high-class  exhibition  male  is  gotten.  It  is  true  that  some  beauti> 
ful  males  have  come  from  such  matings,  but  they  are  always  a  light  shade. 
Some  females  produced  in  this  way  have  improved  as  exhibition 
specimens  as  hens  over  what  they  were  as  pullets. 

AYhen  the  double  matings  are  followed  the  two  Imes  of  breeding 
must  be  kept  separate  and  distinct  in  the  standard  or  single  matings, 
but  the  one  line  must  be  kept  up.  In  either  or  both  the  breeder  should 
always  know  the  individual  hen  that  produces  each  chick.  Some  hens 
will  not  lay  an  egg  that  will  produce  an  exhibition  specimen,  while  almost 
every  chick  from  another  hen  may  be  of  the  highest  quality.  If  one  knows 
the  parents  of  each  individual  chick  and  reserves  as  breeding-stock  only 
those  that  have  produced  the  best,  a  strain  of  producers  will  soon  follow 
that  may  be  depended  upon. 

Line  breeding,  close  breeding,  and  inbreeding  should  all  be  considered 


550 


The   Poultry    Book 


in  the  handling  of  Cochins  of  all  kinds.  The  breeding  in  line  from  a  well- 
selected  lot  of  ancestors  is  called  line  breeding.  This  is  breeding  for  the 
purpose  of  concentrating  into  the  stock  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  selected 
ancestors.  In  this  way  is  established  a  strain  that  should  have  the  power 
or  quaHty  of  reproducing  better  and  better  all  the  time.  In  this  way  only 
can  one  have  both  good  form  and  color.       To    hold  or  to  continue  this 


From  a  photograph  by  It-'.  Goshawk 
BUFF    COCHIN    COCK 
Owned  by  Messrs.  Baily  &  Son,  England 
First  prize.  Birmingham,  1901  and  190Z,  and  second  prize.  Crystal  Palace,  1902 


The   Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl  551 

reproducing  power  in  a  strain  one  must  breed  very  close.  To  aid  in  this 
one  should  at  all  times  select  the  most  vigorous  for  breeding-stock.  The 
most  promising  pullets  should  be  kept  for  hens  next  year  and  mated  with 
the  best  cockerels.  Never  mate  full  brother  and  sister  under  any  con- 
ditions. For  the  introduction  of  new  blood  it  is  always  better  to  obtain 
the  best  female  possible,  mate  her  to  one  of  your  most  perfect  males,  and 
gradually  work  the  result  of  this  mating  into  your  flock,  providing  they 
are  of  good  quality.  If  this  cross  does  not  give  good  results,  better  discard 
them  all  and  try  again  with  another  female.  Violent  crosses  will  ruin 
any  well-established  strain  of  Cochins ;  such  are  more  injurious  to  Partridge 
Cochins  than  with  any  others. 

White  and  Black  Cochins 

All  that  has  been  stated  above  regarding  the  Buff  Cochins  may  be 
followed  with  confidence  in  handling  the  White  and  Black  varieties.  As 
stated,  form  and  feather  should  be  the  same  in  all;  the  color  is  simply 
the  variety  distinction  by  which  they  are  known.  The  very  same  laws 
rule  in  mating  these  for  size,  shape,  and  color.  There  are  certain  set 
rules  for  color  that  must  be  followed  if  we  hope  to  produce  exhibition 
quality  in  these.  It  is  quite  reasonable  to  presume  that  no  one  would 
select  these  of  all  others,  the  most  exclusive  of  high-class  fanciers'  fowl, 
unless  their  wish  was  for  exhibition  quality.  We  have  known  Cochins  to 
produce  140  eggs  a  year,  but  this  is  not  usual  with  those  of  the  highest 
quality.  The  maintenance  of  their  profuse  feathering  detracts  somewhat 
from  the  egg  yield.  We  are  familiar  at  this  time  with  a  flock  of  Cochins 
bred  for  winter  laying  that  do  quite  as  well  as  any  of  the  American  varieties, 
but  with  these  exhibition  qualities  and  feather  have  but  little  consideration. 
All  Cochins  are  fully  the  equal  of  our  American  breeds  for  table  use.  We 
know  this  as  a  result  of  years  of  experience. 

The  White  Cochins  have  continually  possessed  fairly  good  form  and 
feather.  They  have  lacked  somewhat  in  size  and  color,  but  these  have 
so  improved  in  the  past  few  years  as  to  grade  them  close  to  the  winning 
Buffs.  For  some  imexplained  reason  neither  the  Whites  nor  the  Blacks 
have  gained  public  favor  or  attention  as  have  the  Bufl  and  Partridge 
varieties.  It  might  be  said  that  there  was  a  prejudice  against  their  color. 
This  might  be  with  the  Blacks,  but  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  Whites, 
for  there  is  and  has  been  a  continual   increase    of   favor  and  attention 


552  The   Poultry   Book 

bestowed  upon  White  fowls  of  all  kinds.  There  are  the  same  difficulties  to 
overcome  with  these  as  with  all  of  our  American  White  varieties — namely, 
the  influence  the  yellow  skin  and  shanks  have  on  the  color  of  feather. 
It  is  most  difficult  to  have  the  pure  white  plumage  where  these  influences 
contend  for  supremacy. 

Pure  white  plumage  throughout  is  the  absolute  rule  for  color  in  this 
variety.  To  have  and  maintain  this  at  its  best  calls  for  great  care  in 
selecting  and  pairing  of  stock.  Pure  and  absolutely  white  to  the  skin 
must  be  the  entire  plumage  of  the  producing-stock,  or  one  will  fail  in 
producing  pure  white  offspring.  If  either  the  male  or  the  females  show 
creamy  white  or  yellowish  white  in  surface  or  under  color,  its  influence 
will  be  cast  over  or  through  the  entire  plumage  of  their  offspring.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  have  pure  white-plumaged  Cochins  for  producers 
to  gain  the  best  results;  when  breeding-stock  for  generations  has  been  of 
this  true  white  plumage,  the  breeder  may  depend  upon  pure  white  chicks. 
Following  this  line,  one  will  lose  some  of  the  rich  yellow  color  of  shank  and 
skin,  but  this  is  of  no  importance,  either  for  market  or  exhibition,  so  long 
as  a  yellowish  shade  of  shank  is  maintained. 

By  selecting  as  producing-stock  those  that  have  the  very  best  form, 
feather,  and  color  year  after  year,  you  will  build  up  a  line  or  strain  that 
may  be  depended  upon  to  reproduce  of  the  best  quality.  Keep  up  this  trait 
by  selecting  continually  the  best  for  your  own  use.  Maintain  size  and 
feather  in  the  same  way  by  selecting  the  largest  and  best-feathered  hens. 
In  addition  to  all  this,  hatch  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible  and  feed 
continually  for  size,  bone,  and  plumage.  It  is  of  advantage  to  select 
their  food  in  reference  to  its  influence  on  color.  White  corn  is  best  at 
all  times  for  White  fowls.  Yellow  corn  will  influence  the  color  of  plumage 
if  fed  during  the  season  of  molt.  Wheat,  hulled  oats,  and  white  corn  are 
the  best  grains  for  White  Cochins  at  all  times.  Never  feed  the  mature 
stock  so  much  as  to  make  them  fat.  Feed  the  growing  stock  all  you  can 
get  them  to  eat. 

To  obtain  the  proper  shade  of  black,  glossed  with  the  rich  beetle-green 
sheen,  upon  Cochins,  the  greatest  care  in  selecting  and  mating  the  parent 
stock  must  be  observed.  At  the  present  time  it  is  desirable  to  have 
Black  Cochins  as  rich  in  metallic  luster  as  are  the  Langshans.  This  has 
been  accomplished  by  mating  of  the  richest-colored  specimens  to  be  had. 
This  may  be  continued  as  long  as  it  does  not  bring  markings  of  bronze 


The   Shanghai   or   Cochin    Fowl 


553 


M- 


^ 


or  red  into  their  plumage.     The  presence  of  too  much  color  will  have  a 

tendency  to  cast  a  purple  or  bronze  finish  through  the  plumage  of  both 

males  and  females.     The  same  may  also  bring  red  feathers  into  hackle  and 

wing  bows.     This  is  the  natural  reversion  to  the  Black,  Red,  or  Malay 

influence.  The  males 

that  show  these  red       :  "^ 

markings     are     of 

value  to  improve 

color    in   strains   of 

Black  Cochins  of 

dull    color   and 

enrich  the   color  of 

the  females. 

The  males  of 
the  Black  Cochins 
have  naturally  the 
richest  color  of 
plumage.  At  times 
it  is  necessary  to 
keep  down  the 
producing  of  too 
much  color  in  the 
males  through  the 
use  of  females  of  a 
dull  shade  of  black. 
Often  the  very  best 
males  are  produced 
from  rich-colored 
males  mated  with 
dull-colored  fe- 
males. The  best 
colored  females  will 
come  through  the  matmg  of  the  richest  colors  in  both  males  and  females. 
The  darker  the  under  color  of  the  breeding-stock  the  more  assurance  of 
good  surface  color.  There  is  less  chance  of  white  showing  in  plumage 
of  the  offspring  of  parent  stock  that  has  rich  surface  and  dark  under 
color    throughout    than    from    stock    with  Hght  or    slate-colored    under 


»^/ 


COCHIN    COCKEREL 

Dairy  Show,  1S93 


-  /'J  Harrison  IVeir 


554  The    Poultry   Book 

color.  The  darker  the  beak,  shank,  and  under  color  the  more  assurance 
of  proper  color  of  their  produce.  No  matter  how  dark  the  color  of 
shank,  the  darker  or  blacker  they  may  be  the  better  for  breeding  good 
color.  Just  so  the  bottom  of  their  feet  show  the  yellow  color.  The 
absolute  distinction  of  color  between  Black  Cochins  and  Black  Langshans 
is  as  follows:  Black  Cochins,  shanks  and  toes  black  or  yellow,  black 
gradually  shading  into  yellow  preferred;  bottom  of  feet  yellow.  Black 
Langshans,  shanks  and  toes  bluish  black,  showing  pink  between  the 
scales;  web  and  bottom  of  feet  pinkish  white. 

The  maintenance  of  these  colors  assures  the  yellow  skin  and  meat 
for  the  Cochin  and  the  pinkish-white  skin  and  meat  for  the  Langshan. 
The  intermingling  of  the  two  destroys  these  features  and  makes  it  quite 
possible  to  detect  the  mixing  of  the  two.  Some  years  back  many  of  our 
Black  Cochins  showed  the  influence  of  the  Langshan  blood  that  was  intro- 
duced to  improve  color.  This  is  gradually  disappearing,  and  we  now 
have  by  far  the  best  Black  Cochins  ever  bred  in  this  or  any  other  country. 
They  excel  in  all  the  Cochin  qualities,  including  size,  form,  and  feather. 
The  best  Cochin  cockerel  shown  in  America  during  the  winter  of  1901  and 
1902  was  a  Black  of  astonishing  quality.  No  Buff  had  surpassed  him 
in  quality  up  to  that  time,  but  during  the  winter  of  1902  and  1903  Oakland 
Farm  exhibited  a  Buff  Cochin  cockerel  that  excelled  any  Cochin  that  has 
been  shown  in  this  country.  Always  strive  for  the  very  highest  Cochin 
characteristics  in  every  variety.  Follow  this  with  the  very  best  possible 
color  and  markings  to  be  obtained  in  each  variety.  This  rule  has  been 
continually  followed  by  American  fanciers.  Therein  is  the  secret  of 
American  successes  in  producing  Cochins  of  the  very  finest  form  and 
color. 

The  Partridge  Cochin 

The  color  of  the  Partridge  Cochin  is  one  of  the  most  striking  combina- 
tions of  shade  and  color  found  in  domestic  poultry.  The  3tlalay  or  the 
Games  of  the  black-red  tvpe  must  be  responsible  to  some  extent  for  the 
foundation  color.  But  the  present-day  finish  of  beautiful  shades  of 
color — rich  black  striping  of  hackle  and  saddle  of  male  and  the  mahogany 
color  of  female  so  beautifully  penciled  all  over  with  a  darker  shade  that 
conforms  in  its  markings  to  the  shape  of  each  feather — is  the  result  of 
continued  care  and  judgment  upon  the  part  of  the  careful  breeder  of  this 


-1M 


The    Shanghai   or   Cochin   Fowl 


555 


variety.  Not  many  years  ago  we  had  the  salmon-  or  clay-colored  breast 
upon  the  females  of  this  variety  of  Cochins,  somewhat  like  the  Brown 
Leghorns  have  to-day,  but  now  every  feather  of  the  body  and  breast  is 
penciled    throughout.       Formerly   the   color   of    both  male   and   female 


photograph  by  11'. 


PARTRIDGE    COCHIN    COCK 

ize.  IiirininL,'ham,  1902.     Owned  l.y  Baily  &  Son 


was  not  of  the  most  pleasing  character;  to-day  it  is  rich  and  beautiful 
throughout. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  color  of  the  English  and  American 
Partridge  Cochins.  In  both  males  and  females  the  English  types  are  of  a 
lighter    shade    of    color.      The  top  color  of    the  male,  according  to  the 


5S6 


The    Poultry    Book 


English  standard,  is  orange  or  golden  red,  while  with  us  it  is  a  bright  red 
or  a  dark  orange-red.  For  the  females  the  English  fancy  demands  a 
"  light  brown  penciled  with  a  darker  shade."  We  have  the  rich  mahogany- 
red  penciled  with  brown  or  black.  The  English  style  of  color  rather 
leans  toward  the  orange-red  or  even  more  of  a  dark  yellowish  shade  than 
an  orange-red,  while  we  prefer  the  deeper  or  dark  cherry-red  shades.  At 
times  they  show  a  shading  or  ending  of  dark  orange  in  both  the  hackle 
and  saddle  of  male,  while  in  females  we  aim  for  the  deepest  shade  of 
mahogany-red  for  ground  or  body  color. 

It  has  been  almost  an  impossibility  to  produce  the  highest  class 
of  exhibition  specimens  from  a  single  mating.  Some  have  been  produced 
from  the  single  line,  but  few,  however,  have  come  in  this  way.  To  have 
the  bright-red  top  color  of  the  male  heavily  overlaid  or  striped  with  bright 


DARK   BRAHMAS,    1853 


The    Shanghai    or   Cochin    Fowl  557 

metallic  black  in  hackle  and  saddle  and  often  on  back  debars  the  possi- 
bility of  having  the  dark  or  orange-red  hackle  and  mahogany-red  body 
color  distinct^  penciled  with  brown  or  black  in  the  female.  I  will 
describe  the  highest  class  exhibition  specimens  for  color  as  preferred 
by  the  American  fancier,  and  follow  this  with  a  description  of  how  they  are 
produced. 

The  top  color  of  the  male  one  even  shade  of  bright  red  from  head  to 
tail  coverts,  with  a  darker  shade  on  back;  the  hackle  and  saddle  heavily 
striped  with  metallic  black  that  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  laid  over 
or  on  top  of  the  other  color.  Often  the  entire  plumage  of  the  back  is 
striped  with  the  black,  the  shape  of  the  black  striping  conforming  to  the 
shape  of  the  feather;  coverts,  sickles,  main  tail,  and  under  filling  glossy 
greenish-black;  some  of  the  lesser  coverts  edged  with  red;  under  body 
color  a  rich,  deep  black.  If  rich  in  sheen  or  metallic  luster,  so  much  more 
desirable.  The  entire  plumage  throughout  bright  and  lustrous.  Some 
highly  meritorious  specimens  show  some  inclination  to  an  orange  shading 
at  end  of  hackle  and  saddle.  This  is  undesirable,  but  may  be  overcome 
by  other  high  qualities. 

The  female  bright  red  or  dark  orange  hackle,  striped  with  black. 
Often  this  black  striping  is  penciled,  but  the  edge  of  red  must  be  clean  and 
clear  from  dark  or  black  shadings ;  the  entire  body  color  mahogany-red 
penciled  with  brown  or  black,  this  penciling  to  follow  the  shape  of  feather ; 
wing  primaries  and  secondaries  darkish  brown  or  blackish  brown ;  inner 
web  of  secondaries  penciled  with  the  lighter  color;  main  tail  feathers 
black,  some  of  the  upper  ones  penciled ;  coverts  penciled  like  back 
plumage.  It  is  not  unusual  to  have  the  entire  shank  and  toe  plumage 
penciled  like  body  plumage,  many  specimens  so  rich  in  sheen  as  to 
glisten  in  the  light. 

To  produce  such  specimens  demands  the  highest  art  at  mating  for  best 
results.  The  male  strain  must  be  kept  separate  and  distinct  from  the 
female  line,  but  few  if  any  exhibition  females  come  from  this  sort  of  breeding. 
The  most  elegant  males,  with  the  richest  top  color  and  heaviest  striping, 
mated  to  very  dark  females  that  have  hackle  color  that  almost  equals 
the  males,  will  produce  this  style  of  males.  These  females  must  be  bred 
in  the  male-producing  line  the  same  as  are  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 
To  establish  the  female  strain,  mate  the  son  of  the  very  best  hen  you  can 
obtain  to  a  perfect  exhibition  female.     Follow  this  line  of  mating  year 


558  The    Poultry    Book 

after  year;  never  introduce  the  male  strain  into  this  line  of  breeding, 
but  always  introduce  the  new  blood  through  the  female. 

Males  for  producing  females  should  have  the  orange  color  in  hackle 
and  saddle  and  rather  light  under  color,  but  it  is  quite  possible  for  this 
to  come  with  some  of  the  specimens  bred  from  the  male  line.  For  this 
reason  the  only  safe  way  is  to  know  that  the  males  used  for  producing 
females  are  the  direct  descendants  from  hens  of  the  highest  character 
that  were  mated  to  males  rich  in  the  true  female  line  of  breeding.  In  no 
other  way  can  or  will  you  succeed.  We  stated  above  that  a  few  exhibition 
males  had  been  bred  and  successfully  shown  that  came  from  mating  that 
had  been  bred  for  years  to  produce  exhibition  females.  This,  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying,  is  the  most  successful  breeding-strain  of  Partridge 
Cochins  in  America.  They  have  been  built  up  by  years  of  continued  study 
and  care  by  George  W.  Mitchell,  of  Connecticut,  a  life-long  ardent  lover 
and  fancier  of  this  variety  of  Cochin. 

There  are  a  few  important  factors  in  the  production  of  Cochins  that 
must  never  be  overlooked.  Never  make  use  of  females  of  small  size. 
Do  not  hope  to  produce  good  Cochins  from  medium  or  poor  quality  stock. 
To  succeed,  the  breeder  must  have  the  true  Cochin  type,  including  size, 
form,  feather,  and  color  all  combined  in  his  producing-stock.  True 
Cochin  characteristics  cannot  be  gotten  and  maintained  in  any  other  way. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of  "Reliable  Poultry  Journal" 
LIGHT    BRAHMA    PULLET 


1 

1 

LIGHT    AND    DARK    BRAHMAS 
Thomas  F.  McGrew,  New  York 

"Man  is   the   measure   of  all  things." — Claudian. 

]HERE  has  been  continued  contention  for  years  in  England 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  Brahma.  Mr.  Weir,  in  the  English 
edition  of  this  work,  holds  strongly  for  what  may  be  called 
the  Burnham  "Gray  Shanghais."  Lewis  Wright  has 
continually  opposed  such  origin.  It  is  quite  true  that 
George  P.  Burnham  had  these  Gray  Shanghais,  and  that  he  sent 
some  of  them  to  England,  as  mentioned  hereafter.  However,  there  are 
other  sources  from  which  came  better  quality  according  to  American 
notions  of  what  the  true  Brahma  should  be.  Of  this  Mr.  Weir  says: 
"  Nine  birds  were  sent  from  America  in  1852,  as  a  present  to  Her  late 
Majesty  Queen  Victoria,  by  George  P.  Burnham.  None  of  their  ante- 
cedents were  known,  and  only  now  by  such  revelations  as  Mr.  Burnham  has 
deemed  fitting  to  make  in  his  book  entitled  'The  Hen  Fever,'  published 
in  1855,  and  his  later  work,  'The  China  Fowl'  (1874).  It  would  be 
well  to  make  such  excerpts  from  these  as  are  necessary  to  show  in  some 
degree  the  origin  of  the  breed  as  first  exported  to  England. 

"The  Gray  Shanghais  presented  to  Her  late  Majesty  Queen  Victoria 
were  the  first  arrivals.  It  must  be  at  once  apparent  that  from  the  name 
then  given  them  by  Mr.  Burnham  it  was  possibly  nearly  the  correct  one. 

559 


560  The    Poultry   Book 

He  did  not  call  them  Brahma  Pootras,  nor  did  he  pretend  or  assert  that 
they  were  aught  else  than  what  he  represented  them  to  be.  What  followed 
this  importation  as  to  name,  etc.,  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  these 
birds,  which  were  sent  as  Gray  Shanghais,  and  no  reference  whatever  was 
made  to  any  other  color  or  breed.  He  had  some  fowls  of  this  gray  color, 
and  as  such  he  sent  them  to  England.  But  let  him  speak  for  himself,  as 
he  does  in  'The  Hen  Fever'  (1855):  'An  ambitious  sea-captain  arrived 
at  New  York  from  Shanghai,  bringing  with  him  about  100  China  fowls 
of  all  colors,  grades,  and  proportions.  Out  of  this  lot  I  selected  a  few 
gray  birds  that  were  very  large  and  consequently  very  fine.  I  tried  these 
with  other  gray  stock  that  I  had  at  once. '  (Here  it  would  be  right  to  remark 
that  Mr.  Burnham  does  not  state  what  that  gray  stock  was,  but  it  is  not 
at  all  unlikely  that  they  were  from  his  pair  of  birds  imported  in  1849, 
and  which  are  spoken  of  in  Doctor  Bennett's  'Poultry  Book,'  1854,  as 
Chittagongs.)  'I  soon  had  a  fine  lot  of  birds  to  dispose  of,  to  which  I 
gave  what  I  have  always  deemed  their  only  true  and  appropriate  title 
(as  they  came  from  Shanghai),  to  wit.  Gray  Shanghais.'" 

Mr.  Weir  made  a  water-color  drawing  of  these,  and  it  has  been  used 
for  many  years  as  "copied  from  the  Illustrated  London  A^ews  of  1853." 
Mr.  Burnham's  statements  and  writings  on  poultry  are  scarcely  considered 
serious  by  Americans.  There  is  no  breed  of  fowls  so  near  and  dear  to 
the  American  fancier's  heart  as  the  original  Brahma.  The  Brahma 
preferred  in  America  and  selected  as  the  true  and  only  proper  type  come 
direct  in  line  from  what  are  known  as  the  Chamberlain  origin.  The 
American  fancier  is  exacting  as  to  form  and  color,  and  to  his  notion  the 
Chamberlain  stock  is  by  far  the  most  desirable  in  all  Brahma  qualities. 
The  English  type  of  Brahma  would  not  attract  attention  in  this  country. 
They  have  more  hock  and  feather  than  is  considered  desirable  even  for 
Cochins  with  us.  Just  how  the  Chamberlain  strain  was  started  or  from 
where  the  originals  came  it  will  never,  we  presume,  be  truly  known.  At 
the  same  time  they  have  the  full  credit  with  us  of  being  the  original  of  our 
American  Light  Brahma. 

The  original  White  or  Gray  Shanghais  had  single  combs,  while  the 
Chamberlain  Brahmas  have  the  well-established  pea  comb,  much  like 
the  comb  of  the  Aseel  Game.  This  comb  is  of  vital  importance  to  our 
Brahmas,  as  is  the  overhanging  skull,  quite  different  from  the  head  of 
the    Shanghai    (now    Cochin).     These    two    features    are    cultivated    and 


Light   and    Dark   Brahmas 


S6r 


admired  as  Brahma  characteristics.  They  are  features  of  beauty  that 
belong  to  the  Brahma  as  their  emblem  of  purity  of  blood  and  high  quality. 
Without  them  they  are  of  no  value  as  Brahmas.  The  more  complete  they 
may  be  of  finish  the  greater  their  value. 

There  is  but  one  rule  for  shape  or  form  in  Brahmas,  and  both  varieties 
must  conform  to  it  or  lose  caste  as  Brahmas.  The  shape  or  type  is  absolute, 
and  tinless  the  specimen  has  this  to  a  marked  degree  it  will  not  be  classed, 
even  though  the  color  may  be  superb.  Type  and  shape  must  have  the 
supremacy  in  the  selecting  of  a  good  Brahma,  but  even  in  this  there  is 
considerable  of  a  difference  of  opinion.  The  leaders  of  the  New  England 
Light  Brahma  Club  favor  a  Brahma  that  has  rather  more  of  what  is 
called  a  Cochiny  type  than  is  selected  as  a  preference  by  the  Brahma 
breeders  throughout  what  is  known  as  the  Middle  West.  The  difference 
in  these  two  types  largely  rests  with  the  having  of  more  underbody, 
plumage,  fluff,  and  toe  feathering,  with  the  shorter  leg,  and  a  sHght  stoop 
or  a  recline  at  the  knee,  the  preference  of  the  Middle  West  being  for  a 
Httle  more  length  of  shank,  a  straight  poise  at  the  hock  joint,  no  recline 
or  stoop,  and  less  of  fluff  or  under  feather.     While  these  two  distinctions 


From  the  "  Illustrated  London  News  ' 
QUEEN   victoria's    LIGHT   GRAY   SHANGHAIS,    1853 


562  The  Poultry  Book 

are  plainly  recognized  in  America,  neither  one  of  these  forms  leans  toward 
the  English  type  as  shown  so  plainly  by  Air.  Weir's  illustrations  of  Crystal 
Palace  winners.  Their  type  of  bird  would  not  even  be  considered  in  the 
Brahma  class  in  this  country.  In  fact,  our  Cochins  would  scarcely  show 
as  much  forward  carriage  and  feather  as  Mr.  Weir  illustrates  on  their 
Brahmas. 

In  pursuance  of  this  Mr.  Weir  states:  "  Now,  it  must  be  admitted  on 
all  hands  that  in  this  particular  direction  the  Brahma  fancier  has  got  as 
far  as  he  can  well  go,  and  the  differences  between  it  and  the  Cochin  have 
been  so  lessened  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  pea  comb  and  the  slight 
variation  of  the  skull,  they  are  now  so  small  in  some  cases  as  to  be  scarcely 
apparent.  With  almost  the  same  fulness  of  fluff,  the  heavy  foot  and  shank 
feathering,  both  have  now  hanging  dewlaps  or  gullets,  and  both  have  the 
Shanghai  falcon  hock;  true,  the  one  has  a  tail  and  the  other  scarcely  any, 
yet  neither  on  their  first  importation  had  these — shall  I  say  defects  of 
heavy  feathering  ? — neither  the  misnamed  Cochin,  the  Shanghai,  the  Gray 
Shanghais,  afterward  called  (though  not  by  their  exporters)  Brahma 
Pootras,  nor  the  Dark  Brahmas  that  Mr.  George  P.  Burnham  sent  over  in 
1853.  I  am  willing  to — in  fact  I  do,  and  others  do  also — admit  that  both  the 
Cochin,  Shanghai,  or  the  Brahma  Pootra  of  to-day  are  wonderful  in  their 
way  and  in  a  sense  beautiful ;  but  for  all  that,  the  judges  have  been  highly 
to  blame  in  allowing  such  properties  to  become  so  far  in  the  ascendant  as 
to  almost,  if  not  quite,  annihilate  their  more  valuable  qualities. 

"One  of  their  peculiarities  has  not  been  impaired,  and  that  is  the 
hardiness,  feathering,  and  quick  growth  of  the  chicken.  These,  as  far  as 
I  can  learn,  still  have  that  reputation,  though  it  is  said,  and  possibly 
truthfully,  that  they  do  not  carry  the  large  and  fleshy  breast  that,  as  among 
the  Asiatics,  first  brought  them  into  notice;  still,  even  this  might  yet  be 
remedied  by  careful  selection  for  flesh  instead  of  feather  properties,  and  let 
us  hope  that  better  counsels  will  prevail  in  this  direction. 

"In  my  opinion,  the  American  Brahma  is  of  better  quality  for  the 
table,  and  as  a  layer  of  colored  eggs  far  surpasses  our  English  improved 
breed.  The  breeding  for  quantity  of  feather  and  feathering  has  rendered 
ours  much  dryer  and  longer  in  the  fiber  of  the  flesh;  then,  again,  the  large 
size  of  the  falcon  hocks  is  absolutely  a  positive  waste  of  vital  power,  nor 
does  it  add  to  the  beauty;  while  it  renders  the  poor  bird's  ambulatory 
powers  unsatisfactory  and  ungainly.     If  the  Brahmas  of  the  present  are 


Light   and    Dark    Brahmas 


563 


compared  with  those  of  1853,  the  loss  of  the  round  fulness  of  the  breast 
will  at  once  be  observed,  while  the  thick  necking  of  the  hackle  and  generally 
clumsy  make  will  also  be  apparent,  though  they  still  retain  the  American 
Chittagong  head.  Yet  in  most,  if  not  all,  other  respects  they  have  the 
general  appearance  of  the  heavily  booted  and  falcon-hocked  English 
strains  of  the  Shanghai,  which  latter  now  appears  in  such  an  exaggerated 
form,  whether  beautiful  or  not,  as  never  was  or  could  be  anticipated  by  us 


■^ 


PRIZE    LIGHT    BRAHMA    PULLET 

Crystal  Palace  Show 


old  Shanghai  fanciers  of  1851-53.  Had  the  judges  of  the  Dark  Brahmas 
adhered  to  the  type  of  the  'hundred-guinea  pen,'  as  it  was  called,  sent  to 
this  country  by  Mr.  Burnham,  we  should  have  possessed  a  far  handsomer 
fowl,  and  one  of  much  higher  table  qualities  than  the  judges'  notion  of  this 
now  too-heavily  feathered  fanciered  bird  of  to-day. 

"  It  must  be  admitted  on  all  hands  that  the  utility  of  certain  strains 
differs  widely,  some  being  more  fleshy,  others  far  better  layers.  This 
must  be  reasonably  expected  when  they  are  kept  with  care  and  intelligence 
exercised  as  to  the  full  development  of  the  particular  qualities  that  are 


564 


The    Poultry    Book 


most  desirable.     As  an  instance  of  this,  Mrs.  Campbell,  of  Uley,  Gloucester, 
may  be  honestly  quoted  as  deserving  honorable  mention,    she    having 

succeeded  in  breed- 
ing prize  birds  of 
both  sexes  from 
one  pen.  This  is 
as  it  should  be,  and 
there  can  be  nothing 
more  prejudicial  to 
the  general  fancy 
than  that  of  fanciers 
who  feel  obliged  to 
have  two  pens  of 
fowls — one  to  pro- 
duce cockerels  and 
the  other  pullets. 
When  this  lady 
went  to  live  at 
Uley,  about  1891, 
she  had  a  few  Dark 
B  r  a  h  m  a  s .  Five 
eggs  from  the  breed- 
ing-pen were  set 
under  a  half-bred 
Bantam  hen,  from 
which  resulted  five 
chicks — three  pul- 
2  e  t  s  and  two 
cockerels.  One 
pullet  was  never 
exhibited,  but  the  other  four  achieved  victories  in  the  show-pen.  The 
handsome  cock  whose  portrait  is  given  and  one  of  his  sisters  both  gained 
poultry-club  medals,  the  former  during  the  three  years-  of  his  existence 
winning  at  twenty-nine  shows  the  large  number  of  thirty-seven  prizes, 
specials,  and  other  honors.  The  pullet  died  in  1896,  having  won  thirty- 
six  cups,  prizes,  and  specials.  On  no  occasion  were  they  shown  without 
being  noticed.     The  other  brother  of  the  brood,  though  not  often  shown, 


VERY    YOITNG    LIGH": 


By  permission  of  the 
BRAHMA    COCKEREL,    185^ 


Light   and    Dark  Brahmas 


S6S 


was  sent  to  Redditch,  where  he  gained  a  first.  At  the  Bath  and  West  of 
England  show  he  was  third,  when  he  was  sold,  afterward  winning  a  second 
at  Dublin,  Ireland.  The  other  hen  also  won  a  number  of  prizes,  so  that 
out  of  a  brood  of  five,  so  excellent  was  the  strain  that  four — two  cocks  and 
two  pullets — were  conspicuous  by  their  marvelous  success  as  winners  of 
prizes  or  honors.  Another  curious  fact  should  be  mentioned,  and  that  is 
that  all  ]\Irs.  Campbell's  stock  are  descended  from  the  before-mentioned 
brood  of  five  or  their  parents ;  and  yet  she  has  frequently  produced  brother 
and  sister  from  the  same  pen,  both  being  successful  when  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Show  at  Chester  in  1893 — a  brother  and  sister  carried 
off  both  firsts.  AVhat  is  still  more  remarkable  is  that  although  the  stock 
has  been  close-bred,  through  proper  management  they  have  not  deterio- 
rated in  size,  nor  indeed  should  they  when  inbreeding  is  rightly  understood 
and  practised.  Further,  the  cock  with  which  ]\Irs.  Campbell  won  at  the 
Royal  show  in  1899  was 
one  of  the  largest  she 
has  hitherto  sent  to  the 
show-pen,  showing  in 
an  unmistakable  degree 
what  can  be  done  by 
systematic  selection  and 
matching,  no  foreign 
blood  having  been  in- 
troduced, with  the 
exception  of  one  hen. 
Nor  is  this  all.  By 
skilful  attention  she  has 
produced  a  strain  of 
non-sitting  Brahmas,  or 
nearly  so,  some  of  her 
laying  hens  not  wanting 
to  incubate,  while  others 
have  been  very  easily 
restrained.  Her  plan 
was  to  take  away  all 
eggs  immediately  after  they  were  laid,  with  the  idea — and  most  likely 
a   right   one — that    the   birds,    seeing   no   eggs   in    the  nests,    lost  their 


Ryper,niss> 
VERY    YOUNG    LIGHT    BRAHMA    PULLET, 


0/ the  "Field' 


566  The    Poultry    Book 

natural  inclination  to  sit.  To  this  I  can  testify,  having  so  treated 
my  old  English  Game  hens,  with  the  happy  result  that  some  have 
never  attempted  to  sit  at  all,  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  a  non- 
sitting  strain  of  old  English  Game  may  be  established.  As  to  egg- 
production,  the  strain  of  Mrs.  Campbell's  Brahmas  *  average  about 
170  to  180  a  year.  It  should  be  added  that  the  portrait  given  of  the 
Dark  Brahma  cock  has  been  selected  by  this  lady  to  show  the  difference 
between  her  stock  and  those  in  America  in  the  leg  and  shank  feather,  a 
point  in  which  this  bird  was  remarkably  good. 

"As  already  stated,  I  am  not  in  favor  of  either  the  heavily  feathered 
Shanghais  or  Brahmas,  they  being  a  deviation  from  the  original  breeds 
sent  here  by  Mr.  Burnham  from  America  in  1853-54.  At  the  Crystal 
Palace  Poultry  Show  in  1899  I  drew  the  attention  of  a  Shanghai  fancier  to 
a  very  heavily  feathered,  falcon-hocked  White  Shanghai  cock,  and  then  to  a 
Light  Brahma  near,  equally  so  feathered,  and  asked  where  was  the  difference 
between  the  two,  with  the  exception  of  the  combs,  wattles,  and  the  black 
markings.  He  at  once  admitted  that  in  all  other  respects  he  saw  no 
dift'erence.  Both  had  dewlaps,  were  falcon-hocked,  and  heavily  feathered; 
carriage,  bulk,  wings,  and  tail  were  the  same,  but  the  skull  was  a  trifle 
broader.  When  the  first  imports  of  1853  were  exhibited  some  had  single 
combs.  I  made  a  drawing  of  a  pullet.  John  Baily  was  asked  if  it  was  like ; 
he  answered  it  was  exact.  I  took  it  home,  traced  and  colored  the  copy 
buff.  This  was  again  shown  to  Mr.  Baily  as  a  Buff'  Cochin  or  Shanghai, 
and  he  said  it  was  very  good  and  true.  Shown  side  by  side,  he  admitted 
that  he  believed  the  Light  Brahma  and  the  Shanghai  were  identical  at  that 
time.  But  when  the  dark  birds  of  George  P.  Burnham  came  we  both 
changed  our  opinion,  believing  they  were  either  American  Chittagong 
crosses  or  some  of  them,  as  before  described  by  Doctor  Bennett  himself 
in  his  book  written  in  1850-53,  and  when  the  difference  between  the  Light 
and  Dark  was  more  distinct  than  it  is  to-day,  but  even  now  to  the  critical 
eye  it  is  apparent. 

"Since  the  foregoing  was  written,  giving  the  facts  that  came  under 
my  own  observation  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Brahma  as  I  knew  it  in 
England  in  1852-56,  and  later  its  present  development,  I  am  pleased 
to  find  that  one  of  America's  most  venerated  fanciers,  L  K.  Felch,  of  ]\Iassa- 
chusetts,  an  old  and  reliable  admirer  of  the  Light  Brahma,  has  published  his 

♦Mrs.  Campbell's  Dark  Brahmas  have  been  inbred  for  over  seven  years. 


Light   and    Dark   Brahmas 


569 


^^^ 


PRIZE    LIGHT    BRAHMA    COCK 


knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  breed  and  what  he  terms  its  purity.  As 
it  differs  somewhat  from  the  statements  made  at  the  time  and  my  own 
of  its  first  importation  into  England  from  America,  it  is  but  fair  and  just 
to  give  the  new  record  prominent  attention.  He  says  in  his  '  Notes  of  the 
Origin  of  the  Light  Brahmas,'  written  expressly  for  the  Reliable  Poultry 
Journal  and  published  in  June,  1902,  that  'the  breed  which  came  to  us  in 
America  completed,  if  we  may  use  that  term.  That  is,  it  passed  through 
no  mongrel,  no  transitory  state.  So  perfected  was  it  there  that  fifty  years 
have  failed  to  make  them  one  whit  better.  A  breeder  is  not  able  to-day 
to  produce  a  bird  with  a  higher  score  than  those  we  had  in  1876.' 

"This  is  possibly  true  as  to  1876,  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  after 
its  introduction  to  public  notice,  which  was  in  1851-53,  and  certainly,  as  I 


570 


The    Poultry    Book 


have  already  shown,  there  was  much  variation  in  those  imported  into  this 
country  in  1852-53.  Mr.  Felch  incidentally  remarks  that  at  that  time 
(1876)  'bne  specimen  has  reached  the  remarkable  score  of  ninety-seven.' 
Possibly  at  the  time  in  America,  as  was  the  case  here  at  this  date,  but  not 
so  in  the  fifties,  when  the  pea  comb  was  only  too  often  conspicuous  by  its 
absence." 

Nothing  could  prove  more  conclusive  than  the  above  the  vast  differ- 
ence between  the  fashion  of  form  and  feather  of  the  Cochin  and  the  Brahma 
in  Endand  and  America. 


LIGHT    BRAHMA    HEN 
Crystal  Palace,  1896 


Light   and    Dark   Brahmas  571 


The  American  Light  Brahma 

Those  acquainted  with  the  vast  amount  of  testimony  for  and 
against  the  several  origins  of  the  Brahma  fowl  will  need  no  further 
explanation  at  this  time.  Those  anxious  for  more  on  this  subject  can  be 
fully  gratified  in  the  several  English  books  that  seem  to  be  much  more 
interested  on  this  subject  than  we  Americans.  It  is  a  pleasure  and  a 
satisfaction  to  the  American  breeder  to  give  full  credit  to  what  is  known 
as  the  Chamberlain-Cornish  original  Light  Brahmas.  A  slight  reference 
to  this  origin  will  suffice  to  trace  the  lineage  of  the  present-day  American 
Light  Brahma.  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Chamberlain,  who  lived  near  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  purchased  from  an  East  Indian  ship-captain  some  fowls,  which 
he  took  home  with  him,  and  from  them  started 
the  strain  of  Light  Brahma  fowls  from  which  the 
American  fancier  selected  and  bred  in  line  for 
years  until  there  has  been  established  the  beau- 
tiful form  and  feather  of  the  present-day  Light 
Brahma. 

Many  of  us  know  that  several  others  made 
the  same  attempt,  and  it  is  more  than  likely 
that    some    of   the    blood  from  those  early   day  Dra7.H  by  m,-.  u-Hr 

,  -,  1  .      ,  .         ^       1  -,1  ,1  HEAD    OF    LIGHT    BRAHMA 

attempts     has    been    mtermmgled    with     the  hen 

Chamberlain     strain.     At    the    same   time,    it    is 

fairly  well  established  within  the  mind  of  the  American  breeder,  writer, 
and  investigator  that  the  true  origin  of  the  American  type  of  Brahma 
must  be  credited  to  that  line  of  birds  that  originated  with  Mr.  Chamberlain. 
The  greatest  consideration  and  respect  is  due  others  that  have  selected 
and  followed  some  other  line.  The  American  Brahma  is  an  Asiatic  fowl 
which  in  form,  feather,  and  color  is  considered  to  be  the  best  of  all  the 
large  fowls  for  general-purpose  and  utility  use. 

The  most  striking  individuality  of  the  Brahma  is  the  formation  of 
skull  and  comb.  The  head,  which  is  broad,  should  project  over  the  eye. 
This  makes  the  skull  formation  of  such  a  character  as  to  widen  out  the 
width  of  the  head.  The  comb  of  the  Brahma  is  termed  a  pea  comb, 
described  as  a  triple  comb  resembHng  three  small  single  combs  placed 
parallel  one  with  the  other  and  joined  at  the  rear.  Each  of  these  three 
distinct  combs  evenly  serrated,  the  large  serrations  near  the  center  create 


572  The    Poultry    Book 

the  highest  knobs  or  points  in  the  center  or  midway  from  front  to  rear. 
These  combs  should  never  be  so  large  as  to  be  out  of  proportion,  nor  should 
they  be  small  or  delicate,  the  comb  of  the  female  conforming  to  that  of 
the  male,  though  smaller  and  of  finer  texture. 

The  most  beautiful  Brahma  head  has  the  formation  of  the  beautiful 
rounded  skull  that  declines  gently  four  ways  from  the  center.  The  front 
rounds  to  the  beak,  the  rear  gently  inclined  to  the  juncture  of  the  neck 
with  the  head.  From  the  center  either  side  over  the  eye  the  crown  projects, 
forming  a  protection  or  covering,  as  might  be,  to  the  eye.  As  the  birds 
grow  older,  at  times  this  skull  formation,  with  the  dewlap,  tends  to  give  a 
rather  coarse  appearance  to  the  head.  This,  being  the  result  of  age,  can 
readily  be  overlooked  where  a  specimen  is  superb  in  other  qualities.  The 
well-proportioned  and  nicely  rounded  skull  that  conforms  to  the  size  and 
proportion  of  the  entire  bird  is  most  to  be  desired.  This  manner  of  head 
gives  a  depth  and  finish  of  elegance  to  the  whole  bird.  The  comb  of  the 
Brahma  should  rest  upon  the  head  as  if  part,  and  not  have  the  appearance 
of  being  added  or  placed  upon  same.  As  the  crown  rests  upon  the  head 
of  the  ruler  of  an  empire,  so  should  the  comb  ornament  the  head  of  a 
Brahma. 

The  comb  of  the  Brahma,  being  so  much  of  a  distinctive  mark  to  this 
individual  breed,  should  always  be  of  the  most  perfect  quality.  Lower 
and  narrower  front  and  rear,  always  following  the  shape  of  the  skull,  at 
times  a  slight  rising  in  the  rear  may  be  present  without  detracting  from 
same.  The  most  beautiful  comb  formation  is  that  which  starts  close  to 
the  beak,  following  the  shape  of  the  head  and  resting  rather  low  at  the  rear 
of  the  head.  The  juncture  of  the  head  with  the  neck  should  be  apparent; 
ear-lobes  and  wattles  full  and  well  shaped;  what  is  knowTi  as  the  gullet 
underneath  the  beak  adds  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  head,  if  not 
too  large  or  out  of  proportion. 

A  medium  length  of  neck  that  is  low-arched  and  rather  heavy  as  it 
approaches  the  body  is  most  desirable.  The  hackle  should  widen  or  spread 
out  as  it  flows  over  the  shoulders  on  to  the  back.  The  long,  sw^eeping 
hackle  adds  much  to  the  appearance  of  both  male  and  female,  always 
proportionately  longer  in  the  male.  ]\Iuch  of  beauty  depends  upon  the 
true  striping  of  the  hackle  of  both  male  and  female.  This  striping  must 
be  of  a  rich  glossy  black.  It  should  follow  the  shape  of  the  feather  and 
not  run  out  at  the  point.     This  black  must  be  completely  surroimded 


Light   and    Dark   Brahmas 


573 


with  white,  no  taint  of  color  of  any  kind  permissible  in  the  white  edging 
of  the  hackle  feathers.  The  hackle  of  the  female  should  be  rather  large 
anti  round  toward  the  end,  that  of  the  male  pointed.  This  provides  for 
a  broad  black  stripe  in  the  neck  of  the  female,  beautifully  edged  or  laced 
about  with  white.  Each  and  every  feather  of  the  hackle,  extending  well 
up  to  the  juncture  of  the  head  with  the  neck  and  clear  around  in  front,, 
should  be  striped  with  black.  The  presence  of  white  on  stripe  in  any  part 
of  the  neck  is  most  undesirable. 

The  back  formation  of  the  Brahma  is  one  of  the  most  distinctive 
sectional  differences  between  the  formation  of  the  Brahma  and  the  Cochin. 
It  should  be  quite  broad 
and  of  fairly  good  length 
and  breadth  across  the 
shoulders.  There  should 
be  a  gentle  rise  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  middle 
of  the  back.  Here,  in 
juncture  with  the  saddle, 
there  is  a  slight  curved 
sweep  to  the  tail.  The 
saddle  very  full;  the 
oval  form  of  the  main 
tail  feathers  holding  up 
the  sickles,  saddle,  and 
coverts  makes  the  full 
formation  of  saddle  about 
the  tail.  This  is  the 
same  in  both  the  male 
and  the  female,  that  of 
the  male  being  the  more 
pronounced.  It  is  permis- 
sible to  have  some  dark 
striping  on  the  saddle 
of    the    male.      Coverts 

of  both  male  and  female   laced  about   or  edged  with  white,  main    tail 
feathers  rich  glossy  black. 

The  breast  and  body  of  the  Brahma,  both  male  and  female,  should  be 


Drawn  from  life  by  F.  L.  Sewell 
FIRST-PRIZE    LIGHT    BRAHMA 
Owned   and  bred  by  J.    W.   Shaw,    Massachusetts 


574 


The    Poultry    Book 


rather  longer  than  these  same  sections  in  the  Cochin.  Breast  very  promi- 
nent, broad,  deep,  and  full,  well  rounded  underneath,  with  full  or  prominent 
abdomen  and  thighs.     Under-body  plumage  and  fluff  rather  full;  shank 

plumage  well  rounded  over 
about  the  hock  joint,  with 
no  inclination  whatever  to 
stiff'  hock  feathers.  In 
fact,  anything  like  a 
vulture  or  falcon  hock 
should  be  disqualified. 
Shanks  straight  and  well 
set  under  the  body.  As 
mentioned  above,  there  is 
an  inclination  to  a  bend- 
ing at  the  hock  which 
gives  the  Brahma  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  shorter 
in  leg  than  should  be. 
This  same  has  a  tendency 
to  give  the  incline  forward 
of  the  body.  While  this 
does  not  detract  so  much 
from  the  appearance  of 
the  female,  it  does  detract 
from  the  appearance  of  the  male,  creating  a  forward  or  stooped  ap- 
pearance which  does  not  belong  to  the  true  Brahma.  The  shanks  of  the 
Brahma  should  be  straight  and  well  placed  under  the  body,  the  carriage 
more  erect  than  stooped. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  there  is  an  inclination  to  have  consider- 
ably more  feather  upon  the  Brahmas  than  in  former  years.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  a  determinedly  strong  demand  that  they  shall  not  be  injured 
through  having  too  profuse  fluff,  thigh,  and  shank  plumage.  The  present 
determination  to  call  a  halt  to  this  through  the  revision  of  the  standard 
will  do  away  with  any  possible  chance  of  the  utility  value  of  the  Brahma  being 
injured.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  move  in  the  right  direction.  The  Brahma, 
being  the  most  valuable  of  all  of  the  meat-producing  fowls,  should  not  be  in- 
jured through  the  propensity  for  fancy  points  at  the  sacrifice  of  real  value. 


LIGHT 

ry  SI10W,  190: 


From  a  photograph  by  IF.  Goshaw 
IR.\HMA    HEN 
Owned  by  Messrs.  Baily  &  Son,  England 


Light   and    Dark   Brahmas 


575 


The  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  Light  Brahma  depend,  first,  upon 
its  stately  formation,  which  must  be  true  to  Brahma  characteristics; 
following  this  is  the  richness  and  distinctive  lines  between  the  black  and 
white  color ;  this  must  be  clean-cut  and  distinct,  each  free  from  all  shadiness 
or  discolorations  or  intermingling  one  with  the  other.  The  clean,  clear 
white  body  color  is  of  vast  importance.  While  it  is  allowable  to  have  a 
slate  or  smoked  under  color  to  the  plumage,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  keep  this  from  tainting  the  surface  color,  which  should  be  pure  white. 
The  stripings  or  black  centers  of  the  hackle  and  the  coverts  should  be  rich 
glossy  black,  the  edging  pure,  untainted  white.  The  beak  and  shanks 
yellow;  eyes  bay,  bright,  and  clear;  the  wings  a  beautiful  white  on  the 
outside  or  surface;  flights  black;  secondaries  black  marked  with  white. 
The  neck  plumage  under  the  throat  clear  down  underneath  the  body  pure 
white,  running  up  to  the  under- 
filling of  the  tail. 

The  back  and  body 
plumage  should  be  white, 
with  as  little  black  striping 
as  possible  upon  the  saddle  of 
the  male.  While  there  is  a 
tendency  at  this  time  to  have 
the  saddle  of  the  male  almost 
as  heavily  penciled  as  the 
hackle,  we  think  that  this  is 
a  mistake  that  will  not  be 
continued  or  countenanced  by 
the  most  successful  producers. 
The  prevalent  appearance  of 
black  in  the  web  of  the  feather 
upon  the  back  of  the  female 
is  a  disqualification.  There 
cannot  be  any  possible  ex- 
cuse for  permitting  the 
encroachment    of    black 

into  the  surface  plumage  of  either  the  male  or  the  female.  The 
pure,  clear  white  with  the  black  in  hackle  and  coverts  presents  a 
beautiful  combination,  but  so  soon  as  this   black  is  permitted   to  crop 


DARK   BRAHMA    MALE 


576 


The   Poultry    Book 


out  into   the   back  and   body   plumage  the  real  beauty  of  the  Brahma 
will  be  gone. 

The  tendency  is  strong  for  solid  black  wing  flights  in  both  male  and 
female.  No  one  can  deny  the  beauty  of  this  when  opened  up  for  ex- 
hibition. The  having  of  this  has  much  to  do  with  the  encroachment  of 
more  black  into  the  body  plumage.  It  is  perfectly  easy  to  have  these 
black  flights  in  the  cockerels,  the  same  often  found  in  the  pullets,  but  it  is 

injurious  to  the  producing 
r~  IHHIB^'        x^X^  '*"  qualities    of    the    Light 

""^  ^  Brahma  to  have  this  black 

so  pronounced  as  to  hold 
its  own  or  continue  the 
same  in  the  old  birds. 
Flights  that  are  black  or 
nearly  so  should  have  the 
same  consideration  as  the 
solid  black  flights ;  so  long 
as  the  black  predominates 
in  the  male  and  a  fairly 
even  distribution  of  black 
and  white  in  the  flights 
of  the  female,  you  have 
the  safest  condition  for 
the  reproducing  of  proper 
color. 

The  richer  the  black 
and  m.ore  glossy  in  finish 
the  tail  of  both  male  and 
female  the  better  for  appearance.  The  tail  of  the  Brahma  female 
should  not  be  so  large  as  that  of  the  male.  It  should  be  well  spread  at 
the  base,  as  called  V-shaped.  This  spreading  at  the  base  widens  out  and 
builds  up  the  cushion  into  proper  Brahma  form.  When  this  tail  is  nicely 
filled  in  between  the  main  tail  feathers  it  adds  to  the  finish  and  elegance 
of  the  specimen.  The  same  is  true  of  the  tail  formation  of  the  male,  the 
color  of  which  should  be  very  rich  and  glossy. 

In  the  mating  for  the  production  of  best  exhibition  quality  in  Brahmas 
it  is  necessary  to  follow  a  few  absolute  rules.     First  of  all,  it  should  be 


(R.'VHMA    COCKEREL 


Light   and    Dark    Brahmas  577 

remembered  that  no  one  can  be  successful  in  the  producing  of  exhibition 
Brahmas  unless  they  have  had  years  of  experience  in  the  studying  of  this 
art.  Those  who  desire  to  have  reasonably  fine  exhibition  quality  combined 
with  good  utility  qualities  should  mate  their  Brahmas  as  follows :  Always 
select  in  your  producing-stock  the  identical  type  which  you  desire  to  have 
in  the  offspring.  Have  this  as  perfect  as  you  can  obtain  it.  This  will 
assure  your  having  a  fair  proportion  of  the  type  or  shape  that  you  admire. 
Have  color  that  will  be  clean,  clear,  and  attractive.  Use  females  of  ex- 
hibition color  mated  with  males  that  are  rather  dark  in  under  color  and 
very  pronounced  in  the  color  of  hackle,  saddle,  and  wings.  With  such 
matings  you  may  be  reasonably  certain  of  securing  quite  a  large  percentage 
of  fairly  good  specimens.  As  stated  above,  the  producing  of  the  highest 
exhibition  quality  only  comes  as  the  result  of  years  of  study  and  experience. 
Those  who  wish  to  work  along  these  lines  should  select  and  secure  the 
darkest-colored  females  that  are  true  and  rich  in  color  and  pair  these 
with  a  male  equally  as  dark,  always  guarding  against  the  encroachment 
of  the  black  into  the  white  where  it  does  not  belong. 

The  greatest  danger  along  these  lines  comes  from  the  use  of  males 
where  the  black  runs  out  at  the  point  of  the  feather.  This  is  always 
certain  to  produce  smutty  or  badly  colored  hackles  in  both  the  males 
and  the  females.  Many  of  the  specimens  that  will  be  produced  in  this 
way  will  be  of  no  commercial  value  on  account  of  their  very  bad  color, 
but  through  care  in  selecting,  mating,  and  a  study  of  the  results  you  will 
in  time  build  up  a  strain  that  will  produce  what  you  desire.  No  one  can 
tell  you  better  than  this  how  to  proceed.  You  must  follow  along  these 
lines  and  study  out  the  problem  for  yourself  after  considering  the  results 
that  come  from  each  season's  work. 

The  Dark  Brahma 

The  best  authorities  of  the  present  describe  penciling  as  being  "  marked 
with  fine  lines,  as  if  with  a  pen  or  brush,  especially  when  concentric,  as  on 
a  breast  feather  of  a  Partridge  Cochin."  This  pecuHar  style  of  marking 
belongs  to  the  Partridge  Cochin  and  Dark  Brahma  females,  and  other 
varieties  that  have  been  originated  through  crosses  with  them  and  other 
fowls.  There  are  features  of  these  markings  that  tend  to  disprove  their 
actual  existence  on  an  early  day  Jungle  fowl  in  as  good  form  as  claimed; 
these  are  that  it  is  possible  to  have  the  plumage  of  an  individual  specimen 


578  The    Poultry    Book 

penciled  as  it  should  be  with  the  lines  following  the  shape  of  the  feather, 
other  feathers  lined  almost  directly  across,  and  others  stippled  or  marked 
with  small  dots  Hke  a  Brown  Leghorn  female.  When,  through  neglect  In 
breeding,  the  Dark  Brahma  or  Partridge  Cochin  begins  to  run  out  or  lose 
in  color  qualities,  these  several  markings  are  more  prevalent,  especially 
the  stipple  marking. 

Among  the  Jungle  fowl  that  might  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the 
Asiatic  breeds  is  the  Ceylon  Jungle  fowl.  Writing  for  The  American 
Poulterer's  Companion  (1856),  Mr.  Bissell  states  that  "their  general  appear- 
ance has  much  of  the  Shanghai  character;  they  are  exceedingly  tame  and 
weigh  about  eight  pounds  per  pair.  There  appears  to  be  two  distinct 
varieties  of  color — one  light,  the  other  dark.  The  lighter-colored  ones 
resemble  the  body  color  of  the  silver-penciled  Hamburgs,  but  on  close 
inspection  the  markings  of  the  feathers  are  found  to  differ  materially. 
The  edge  of  the  feather  is  margined  with  white,  then  a  brownish-black 
inner  line,  then  one  of  white,  then  a  dark  center."  This  describes  the 
present-day  markings  of  our  Dark  Brahma  females.  From  these  may 
have  come  the  influence  that  has  made  possible  the  beautiful  plumage 
markings  of  the  Dark  Brahmas. 

The  Dark  Brahmas  have  never  had  equal  prominence  with  the  Light 
Brahmas  in  America,  nor  are  they  generally  of  as  good  quality.  With 
some — like  Philander  Williams,  Newton  Adams,  and  the  late  Charles  A. 
Sweet — the  quality  has  always  been  excellent.  They  must  be  bred  up  to 
the  highest  degree  to  maintain  all  the  characteristics  as  well  as  proper 
color  and  markings.  There  are  equal  troubles  to  overcome  in  both  males 
and  females  when  aiming  for  proper  color  and  markings.  The  producing 
of  the  nice  light  steel-gray  for  females  and  the  clear  top  color  for  males 
is  a  task  of  no  small  proportions.  The  keeping  out  of  the  bro\vn  shadings 
in  plumage  that  are  said  to  have  come  from  crossing  with  the  Partridge 
Cochins  to  improve  the  penciling  demands  close  attention.  No  one  can 
hope  to  keep  the  Dark  Brahma  up  to  the  highest  point  of  excellence  unless 
the  greatest  attention  is  given  to  the  selecting  and  pairing  of  the 
breeding-stock. 

For  actual  value  as  egg-producers  and  table  fowls  they  are  fully  the 
equal  of  the  Light  Brahma.  If  they  had  equal  attention  given  them 
that  has  continually  followed  the  Lights,  no  one  can  tell  how  beautiful  and 
popular  they  might  have  been.     There  is  not  a  fowl  of  all  the  many  breeds 


Light    and    Dark   Brahmas 


579 


and  their  subvarieties  in  which  there  are  more  possibihties  for  beauty  and 
real  value.  They  have  the  size,  form,  vigor,  quick  growth,  and  egg- 
producing  qualities.  Their 
color  is  suited  to  any  or 
all  locaHties.  None  sur- 
passes them  for  table 
poultry.  All  they  need 
is  cultivation  to  bring 
them  fully  abreast  of  any 
or  all  of  our  high-class 
poultry.  They  can  fill 
almost  any  position  the 
fancier  may  select  for 
them,  providing  their 
breeding  is  guided  with 
care  and  judgment.  There 
was  formerly  in  England, 
where  the  very  best  of 
the  early  day  Dark 
Brahmas  were  grown,  a 
tendency  for  two  shades 
of  color,  the  one  a  rather 
white  ground  color  closely 
penciled  with  dark  gray, 
the  other  dark-brown 
penciling  upon  dark- 
brown  ground. 

In  addition  to  this, 
some  cultivated  the  dark- 
brown  shadings  upon  the  surface  of  wings.  This  tendency  toward 
the  brown  shade  of  color  in  former  days  has  its  influence  even  to 
the  present  time  over  their  color  and  markings.  The  American 
demand  is  for  the  clear,  clean  top  color  and  glossy  black  body 
color  for  males  and  the  clear,  clean-cut  silvery  gray  for  the  female, 
as  free  as  possible  of  all  tendency  toward  brown  shading.  Yet  with 
all  this  many  of  the  very  finest  hens  show^n  have  the  brownish  cast  in 
their  plumage,  as  have  some  of  the  pullets.     To  be  rid  of  this,   great 


DARK      BRAHMA      COCKEREL 
Bred  and  owned  by  J.  T.  Painter,  Iowa 


580  The   Poultry   Book 

care  and  attention  have  been  given  to  mating  for  pullets.  This  has 
brought  to  the  front  again  a  marked  tendency  for  the  white  or  spotted 
breasts  in  males  from  this  line  of  breeding,  making  special  matings  for  both 
males  and  females  almost  a  necessity.  This  counts  against  this  breed 
somewhat;  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  so  to  mate  many  of  our  most 
popular  breeds  to  succeed  with  them. 

The  fashion  now  in  England  is  for  a  pure  gray  ground  color,  with 
black  or  mealy  black  penciling,  uniform  throughout,  but  the  massive 
hock  and  underbody  fluff  has  destroyed  their  value  to  American  breeders. 
Head  points  of  the  female  specially  have  been  neglected.  This,  joined  with 
bad  hocks,  spoils  the  English-bred  birds  for  America  when  head  points  and 
close  hocks  are  so  important.  It  is  to  be  lamented  that  the  two  most 
successful  poultry-producing  countries  should  be  so  far  apart  in  the  rules 
for  breeding  such  valuable  fowls.  The  most  surprising  feature  of  it  all  is 
that  the  English  people  have  drifted  so  far  away  from  market  qualities, 
in  the  pursuit  of  useless  and  unsightly  hock  plumage,  and  the  utter  neglect 
of  the  most  valuable  meat  portions  of  the  fowl  in  the  having  of  flat-breasted 
Cochins  and  Brahmas — a  feature  most  prominent  in  aU  fowls  that  are 
cultivated  to  an  excessive  extent  for  fluff  and  stiff  hock  plumage. 

The  question  of  producing  exhibition  males  and  females  from  the  one 
single  pair  has  had  considerable  attention.  That  it  has  been  done  and  that 
it  is  a  practical  proposition  is  no  longer  doubted.  In  the  doing  of  this  it  is 
the  safest  to  select  the  female-bred  stock,  or,  in  other  words,  select  from  a 
strain  that  has  been  bred  successfully  in  line  for  females.  Select  of  these 
the  darkest  of  the  males  and  the  finest-colored  females,  and  continue  in 
this  manner  of  selecting  year  after  year.  Remember  that  white  markings 
on  the  breast  of  males  are  not  proof  positive  that  he  is  properly  bred  in  the 
female  line.  Know  full  well  the  breeding  of  all  the  stock  you  have,  and 
select  from  the  full  knowledge  of  their  ancestors  rather  than  for  looks. 
In  this  way  only  is  it  possible  to  have  the  quality  that  will  produce  the 
best  of  exhibition  stock. 

The  early  day  Dark  Brahmas  as  bred  in  America  differ  considerably 
from  the  present  style.  They  had  a  very  smoky  color  throughout  the 
back  and  body  plumage,  breast  colors  very  light — often,  in  fact,  almost 
white  in  color.  This  has  been  built  up  and  improved,  as  have  the  Partridge 
Cochins,  until  now  we  have  Dark  Brahmas  with  one  even  shade  of  ground 
color    and    penciling   throughout,    the   neck    hackle    beautifully   marked 


Light    and    Dark   Brahmas 


S8i 


with  black,  the  tail  coverts  and  several  of  the  main  tail  feathers  of  equally! 
good  color.  Males  are  constanth^  met  with  that  have  beautiful  body 
color,  perfectly  black  underbody  color,  but  with  all  this  they  are  not  a 
favorite  fowl  with  us  nor  are  they  as  plentiful  as  they  should  be.  The 
very  best  of  our  American-bred  Dark  Brahmas  are  descended  from  fowls 
imported  from  England,  changed  and  brought  within  the  rules  of  proper 
characteristics  under  our  standard. 

The  standard  description  for  shape  of  the  Dark  Brahma  is  identical 
with  the  demands  in  the  same  direction  for  the  Light  Brahma.  In  other 
words,  the  Dark  Brahma  must  be  a  counterpart  of  the  Light  Brahma,  the 
only  difference  being  the  color  and  markings.  Having  fully  described 
the  type  or  form  that  is 
demanded  for  a  Brahma,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  give  a 
thorough  description  of  the 
color  demands  and  how  to 
produce  them  in  the  Dark 
Brahma. 

The  head  plumage  of  the 
male  is  described  as  silvery 
white.  While  this  same  color 
description  is  made  use  of  in 
describing  the  top  color  of 
the  Dark  Brahma,  it  is  not  a 
pure  silvery  white,  but  more 
of  a  grayish  white,  in  fact. 
The  hackle  is  also  described 
as  silvery  white  with  a  black 
stripe  in  the  center  of  each 
feather,  that  tapers  to  a  point. 
In  other  words,  the  hackle 
should  have  the  black  center 
entirely  surroimded  by  a  white 
edging.  This  white  edging 
must    be    entirely    free    from 

smoky  or  dark  marking  and  edgings  of  any  kind.  This  same  is  true 
throughout  the   entire  top  color  of  the  male.     Wherever    the  white   of 


D.A.RK    BRAHM.^    PT,  LLET 
:  Chicago.  1903.     Bred  and  owned  by  J.  T.  Painter,  Iowa 


582 


The    Poultry    Book 


the    feathers    is    marked    or    marred   with   dark   shading   it   makes   the 
dark,  smutty  appearance  which  is  most  undesirable. 

The  entire  top  color,  including  the  back,  saddle,  and  wing  bows, 
should  be  of  the  same  clear  silvery  white,  saddle  plumage  striped  through- 
out the  same  as  the  hackle.  The  saddle  should  be  long  and  flowing  well 
down  about  the  sides  of  the  tail.  When  the  entire  top  color  is  free  from 
dark  marks  and  shadings  other  than  the  proper  striping  of  hackle  and 
saddle,  you  have  the  ideal  top  color. 


photograph  oy  < 


One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  the  Dark  Brahma  is  the  marked 
contrast  between  the  white  and  the  black  top  color,  the  clear,  distinct 
markings  of  hackle  and  saddle,  and  the  rich,  brilliant  glossy  black  tail  that 
comes  up  and  is  surrounded  by  the  coverts  and  the  saddle  plumage.  The 
tail  should  be  a  rich  glossy  black  throughout  and  of  the  same  form  and 
finish  as  the  tail  of  the  Light  Brahma.  Tail  formation  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. A  narrow,  pinched  tail  is  a  great  defect.  The  tail  should  be  well 
spread  out  at  the  base  and  run  up  toward  the  center,  building  out  the 
full  saddle  and  cushion  on  the  back,  which  makes  the  proper  back  formation. 
Underneath  the  main  tail  feathers  should  be  well  filled  in  with  curling 


Light   and    Dark    Brahmas  583 

feathers  of  rich  black  color.  Sickles  and  coverts  glossy,  greenish-black, 
lesser  coverts  edged  with  white. 

The  breast  and  underbody  color  should  be  of  a  rich  glossy  black; 
a  slight  sprinkling  or  speckling  of  white,  while  undesirable,  is  not  a  defect 
that  should  count  overly  against  an  otherwise  well-colored  specimen. 
It  is  quite  natural  that  the  males  bred  from  the  female  line  have  these 
markings,  and  while  the  white  spots  on  the  breast  are  not  proof  positive  of 
having  been  bred  true  to  the  female  line,  they  are  usually  found  upon  males 
that  are  bred  in  this  way.  While  you  cannot  select  the  proper  line  breeding 
from  breast  indications,  it  is  very  valuable  to  have  the  proper  markings 
of  this  kind  from  a  truly  bred  male  that  descends  from  a  fine  line  of 
penciled  females. 

The  primaries  of  the  wings  of  the  male  are  black,  excepting  a 
narrow  edging  of  white  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  lower  web; 
secondaries  black,  except  the  lower  half  of  the  lower  web,  which 
should  be  white  till  near  the  end  of  the  feather,  where  the  white 
terminates.  Shoulder  coverts  black,  wing  coverts  glossy,  greenish 
black,  forming  a  well-defined  bar  across  the  wing.  Feathers  on  shanks 
and  feet  black  or  black  mixed  with  white — the  pure  black  much 
preferred;  shanks  and  toes  orange.  While  orange  is  the  desirable 
color  for  the  shanks  and  toes,  most  frequently  they  are  found  with 
what  is  called  smoky  yellow  shanks. 

The  beak  of  the  female  is  rather  dark,  head  color  silvery  gray,  neck 
black  edged  with  silvery  white,  the  black  running  to  a  point  near  the  end 
of  the  feather.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  the  black  in  the  feather 
of  the  neck  of  the  Dark  Brahma  is  different  from  the  demands  in  the  Light 
Brahma.  In  the  Light  Brahma  the  black  must  run  nearly  parallel  with 
the  edge  of  the  feather,  while  in  the  Dark  Brahma  the  black  running  to  a 
point  near  the  end  of  the  feather  and  conforming  to  the  shape  of  the 
feather  is  the  color  demand.  In  Light  Brahmas  we  now  have  the  neck 
feathers  of  many  of  the  females  quite  large  and  oval  in  shape,  giving  a 
much  larger  black  center  than  is  usual  with  the  Dark  Brahmas; 
this  distinction  of  neck-marking  is  worthy  of  consideration.  The 
balance  of  the  body  plumage  of  the  female,  including  the  breast,  should 
be  gray  with  a  distinct  dark  penciling,  the  outlines  of  this  penciling  to 
conform  with  the  shape  of  the  feather;  any  shafting,  dark  shading  or 
mealiness  of  color  undesirable.     While  the  standard  describes  the  body  color 


S84 


The    Poultry    Book 


From  ci  photoglyph 
LIGHT    BRAHMA    COCKEREL,    I9OO 
Winner  of  First  Dairy  Show  Cup,  Birmingham 
Bred  by  J.  Baily  &  Son 


■of  the  female  as  gra^^  there  are  too  many  shades  of  gray  not  to  select 
among  them.  The  most  popular  of  these  shades  is  known  as  the  light 
steel-gray;  or,  as  it  might  be  termed,  a  silvery  gray  body    color   is  the 

most  admired  in  pullets. 

When  this  color  is  attained  throughout 
and  the  entire  plumage  is  nicely  penciled 
with  a  distinct  dark  penciling  it  makes  the 
most  beautiful  body  color  for  the  pullet. 
We  do  not  think  that  there  is  any  kind  of 
a  fowl  more  beautiful  than  is  a  rich- 
colored  Dark  Brahma  pullet.  It  is  quite 
usual  for  all  of  the  hens  to  become  darker 
or  more  brown  in  body  color  as  they  grow 
older.  The  lighter  in  shade  the  pullets  are 
the  lighter  in  shade  will  they  be  as  hens  as 
they  grow  older.  The  inclination  to  go 
brown  in  body  color  must  come  from  one 
or  two  causes.  Undoubtedly  the  Dark 
Brahmas  and  the  Partridge  Cochins  have 
been  crossed  with  each  other  to  improve  the  penciling  in  either  or 
both.  There  was  also  an  inclination  at  one  time  in  England  to 
favor  the  brownish-colored  females;  all  these  may  be  responsible 
for  the  inclination  toward  the  brownish  shade  of  color  in  females. 
However,  the  fact  exists,  and  as  is  natural  that  it  should  be  the 
lighter  they  are  able  to  have  the  pullets,  the  lighter  will  they  be  as 
they  advance  in  years.  A  beautiful  colored  female  carries  the 
richness  of  color  throughout  her  entire  body,  including  the  leg  and  toe 
plumage. 

The  primaries  of  the  Dark  Brahma  female  are  black,  with  a  narrow 
edging  of  gray  penciling  on  the  lower  web;  secondaries  the  upper  web 
black,  the  lower  web  gray.  Main  tail  feathers  black,  with  more  or  less 
penciling  upon  the  upper  edge  of  two  or  more  of  the  upper  feathers  of  the 
main  tail. 

The  producing  of  the  best-colored  Dark  Brahmas  makes  it  almost  a 
necessity  to  follow  what  is  known  as  the  double-mating  plan.  This  is  to 
have  one  pen  mated  for  the  producing  of  males,  the  other  pen  mated  for 
the  producing  of  females.     When  such  manner  of  breeding  is  followed,  it 


Light    and    Dark    Brahmas 


58s 


is  an  absolute  necessity  to  keep  the  lines  separate  so  as  to  make  it  utterly 
impossible  to  intermingle  their  blood.  A  male  bird  bred  under  the  double- 
mating  system  will  almost  ruin  the  penciling  of  a  well-bred  female  strain. 

For  the  producing  of  the  finest  exhibition  males,  the  best  male  possible 
to  be  secured,  one  perfect  in  form  and  color,  should  be  mated  to  females 
of  good  size,  shape,  and  of  a  dark  shade  of  color.  Above  all,  these  males 
should  be  bred  in  line  for  the  producing  of  exhibition  males.  For  the  pro- 
ducing of  exhibition  females  exactly  the  opposite  rule  must  be  followed. 
Use  only  the  very  finest-colored  females  that  have  been  bred  in  line  for 
use  for  the  producing  of  pullets,  mated  only  with  males  bred  direct  in 
line  with  the  female  blood.  These  two  lines  of  breeding  must  be  kept  well 
apart,  and  it  will  be  found  absolutely  necessary  to  guard  continually  against 
the  loss  of  Brahma  type  and  characteristics  in  the  female  line,  as  there 
seems  to  be  a  tendency  toward  the  loss  of  shape  when  paying  so  much 
attention  to  color  element. 

Fairly  good  Dark  Brahmas  may  be  bred  from  a  single  mating  by 
selecting  the  very  best-colored  males  that  it  is  possible  to  secure  and  mate 


Photograph  by  i 
LIGHT    BRAHMA    COCKERELS 
Bred  and  owned  by  J.  W.  Shaw,  Massachusetts 


rtesy  of'^ReHable  Poultry  yo. 


them  with  the  very  best-colored  females  to  be  had ;  taking  the  males — the 
best  of  them — from  this  mating  and  mating  them  again  to  the  very  best- 
colored  females  to  be  obtained,  you   will   gain   a   start  of   well-penciled 


586 


The  Poultry  Book 


females  and  very  good  males.  By  selecting  the  darkest  of  these  males 
continually  and  always  mating  them  with  fine-colored  females  you  will 
be  able  to  secure  quite  a  number  of  very  creditable  exhibition  fowls, 
both  males  and  females,  from  such  matings.  To  continue  this,  always 
select  the  very  finest-colored  females  and  mate  them  with  the  males 
bred  in  this  same  line  that  are  of  rather  the  darker  shades  of  color. 
Always  and  continually  keep  in  mind  the  proper  type  and  shape  of 
the  Brahma.  Never  be  led  astray  in  this.  Do  not  allow  vulture  hocks 
or  excessive  feathering  to  creep  in.  Hold  continually  to  proper  shape  and 
color  and  you  will  succeed.  There  are  a  few  points  of  interest  in  the 
general  make-up  of  the  Brahma  that  should  be  constantly  considered.  It 
is  not  proper  to  have  the  Brahma  stoop  at  the  hock  joint  or  knee,  as  do 
the  Cochins.  The  Brahma  should  stand  up  well  upon  his  pins,  more  erect 
than  does  the  Cochin.  The  Cochin  naturally  leans  or  stoops  forward  and 
bends  at  the  knee.  This  is  a  defect  that  should  not  be  allowed  to  creep 
into  the  Brahmas.  Keep  Brahmas  of  true  shape,  proper  color,  and  always 
select  them  because  they  are  Brahmas  true  and  pure,  rather  than  because 
they  have  an  inclination  toward  Cochin  form  and  feather. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of  T.  F.  McGrciif 
WHITE   COCHIN    HENS 


,..f 


